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by Vijayalakshmi R
RFID Tracking Using Radio over Fiber
Abstract
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is used for tracking and detection of the objects or humans so that
security is ensured in the organizations. The storing and retrieving of data is done using the RFID tags,
which replaces the barcodes as the identification method. An RFID tag can be kept at any object or
human being for identification, which uses radio frequency waves. The RFID tracking system consists of
an RFID reader, which sends the modulated RF signal to the RFID tag, which has an antenna and an IC. In
a distributed antenna system (DAS), there is an improvement in RFID coverage so that reliability and
flexibility is enhanced over a conventional switched RFID tag. The antennas can be operated at a greater
distance due to the broadband nature of the radio over fiber DAS when compared to the conventional
co-axial DAS system. The performance of an RFID radio over fiber can be improved if it implements
certain modulation and multiplexing methods along with attenuation. This paper focuses on RFID
tracking using RFID radio over fiber. The optimization of the multi-antenna can better improve the
reliability of the RFID tag. This enables the accurate detection in retail, warehouse, defense, pharmacies,
packaging industries and others. However, the problem of collision in a multi-antenna DAS, which leads
to the strict regulations and standards, can be rectified using synchronization of RFID readers. The
performance of a passive UHF RFID tag can be improved by impedance matching in which the power
reflection coefficient is calculated for maximum power transfer taking into account of the variable
impedance versus frequency.
1. Introduction
Traditionally, barcodes were used as the tracking method in libraries, provisional stores, health-care
centers and pharmacies and in some industries storing bulk number of products. The barcodes can store
only a limited amount of information and they are read only, and thus information cannot be modified.
An RFID reader, on the other hand, is re-writable and is often called as an interrogator. The idea of radiofrequency identification (RFID) was first introduced by H Stockman in 1948 (H Stockman, 1948). RFID has
become widely applicable and is used for ensuring personal security in many organizations ( Gamble KH,
2010). Even the time location analysis has been carried out in exploiting RFID in identifying the workers
at the indoor workplaces (Huang FC et al., 2010). The RFID system consists of an RFID reader, an RFID tag
and a host computer (Finkenzeller, 2003).
1.1. Aim
The limitations of conventional tracking systems were shorter distance and small data storage capacity.
Some of the advantages of RFID systems are its reprogrammability, high data storage capacity, high
secured tracking method and compatibility. The wireless communication is possible with the optical fiber
and it plays a vital role in optical based RFID system. The read capacity of the RFID system is high and
some techniques and standards are adopted to make RFID as the most accurate and efficient tracking
system for ensuring privacy and security.
The implementation of RFID tracking method is to provide a cost effective and compatible
system so that high efficiency is accomplished, which makes a wide range of applications in
many domains in the world.
1.2. Basic Considerations
Nowadays, RFID has been implemented using EPC global Standard that adopts supply chain
management, which consists of a unique id. While implementing RFID, some parameters of the IC chip
such as L, C and Q are adjusted such that multiple resonant frequencies are obtained in order to have
maximum antenna gain. The impedance matching is achieved by adjusting LC of the chip to the carrier
frequency and maximizing the quality factor (Q) and maximizing the antenna size. The bandwidth of the
antennas should be enough to compensate the impedance. The simulation of the impedance can be
done using HFSS software package (Nikitin P V and Rao KVS, 2006). MATLAB is used in post processing of
HFSS simulation results. The difference between the calculated the theoretical maximum read range and
the measured range of S is obtained using the RFID performance measurement instrument called
Voyantic Tagformance.
1.3. Different RFID Systems and the Basic Working Principle
There are three types of RFID tags: 1) active tag, which is powered using internal battery, 2)
semi-passive tag, which has a battery only to power the IC chip, and 3) passive tag, which does
not have a battery and it is energized using the power from a tag reader. Thus, passive tag
readers are cheaper than active tag readers due to the absence of the power supply and have a
longer life than the later. The passive RFID modulates the electromagnetic waves of the reader
and it is transmitted back to the reader. When the energy is transmitted to the antenna from the
reader, it is converted back into electrical energy, which is sufficient enough to power the IC.
The conventional RFID system used co-axial cable, which is error free for short distance tracking
at lower frequencies. At higher frequencies, the RF loss increases in Radio frequency over Fiber
(RoF) RFID system. In such cases, Fiber optics is used instead of co-axial fiber so that lossless
operation is possible. The optically fed RFID DAS can be effectively operated even in the noisy
environment as they do not leak. The multi-mode fiber (MMF) can be used in RFID for short
distances and lower bandwidths whereas single mode fiber can be used instead of it for longer
distances and higher bandwidths.
The RF signal is fed to the transmitter (fiber optic cable), which converts RF signal into optical
signal and the output optical signal is converted back to RF signal by the receiver. The RF signal is
modulated at the transmitter end and the optical signal is demodulated at the receiver end.
Thus, the frequency conversion takes place in the form of uplink and downlink conversion.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Radio over Fiber (RoF)
Radio over fiber (RoF) utilizes optical fiber, which carries modulated optical signals that are
amplified and fed back to remote antenna unit (RAU). It provides the centralized control, thus making
the system simple, cheap and easy to maintain. The basic architecture of an RoF using Intensity
Modulation Direct Detection consists of a laser diode, a photo detector, power amplifier and a low noise
amplifier (LNA) [1]. The LNA used can be fabricated by consolidated NMOS and PMOS devices to
increase the gain and to reduce the noise level [2]. The electrical signals are converted into light signals
in the laser diode and they are modulated into optical signals through the optical fiber, detected by the
photo diode and amplified by power amplifier in the uplink and vice versa in the downlink. An
attenuator can be used in front of the laser diode to prevent any breakdown due to high frequencies.
The main principle of the attenuator is that it reduces the amplitude of the signal so that the system is
protected. The power amplifier is a device whose components such as resistances and capacitances are
almost invariant of frequency. The power amplifier used can be a BJT or a MOSFET depending on the
application. The focus on the gain and transconductance of the power amplifier increases the reliability
of the system. The Low Noise Amplifier is used to amplify the optical signals from the remote antenna
with the reduction in the noise level, as the system may be prone to noise at high bandwidths.
The throughput of the system is increased by reducing the attenuation and implementing noise
reduction techniques to increase signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The pico cellular system deploys
RoF in which wireless transmission is possible by using WLAN standards [3]. It implements MMF,
for which new measures in design are taken to have very large bandwidths. There are different
types of MMFs based on bandwidth [4]. The operation beyond +3db bandwidth provides
optimal performance. The transmissions using UWB and WiMax make use of RoF using MMFs. At
low frequencies the losses are negligible in MMFs and therefore there will be no problem of
dispersion and interference, which is not possible at high frequencies [5], [6]. However,
intermodal dispersion can be minimized with the use of graded-index MMF. The bandwidth of
the RoF is very low 500 MHz km, which made sense that it is not possible to operate RoF MMFs
at microwave frequencies.
Figure 2.1: An RoF employing intensity modulation. LD: laser diode, PD: photodiode are used in uplink
and downlink conversion. PA: Power Amplifier to amplify the optical signals past to conveying them to a
remote antenna. Att: attenuator to prevent LD from saturation. LNA: low noise amplifier to amplify the
attenuated resultant signals at the uplink.
2.1.2. Advantages of Radio over Fiber
1. Simple in construction
2.
Lower losses
3.
Cost effective in design and maintenance
4.
Reduced power consumption
5.
Flexible for any modulation and multiplexing methods due to high bandwidth
6.
Centralized control
2.2. Different Types of Distortions in a Radio over Fiber
2.2.1. Harmonic Distortion
The harmonic distortion results from the unwanted signal components due to losses in the
system produced from signal conversion. Such a system has a non-linear transfer function, which is
expressed as follows:
Vout(t) = aVin + bVin2 + cVin3 + dVin 4+......----------(1)
where Vin is the input signal, Vout is the output signal and a,b,c…are constant harmonic
coefficients. The resonance at the odd harmonics is possible while it is difficult to achieve at the
even harmonics in some RFID systems. There will be loss of signals in such a way that the output
waveform will be different from the input waveform. The waveforms of harmonics will be
distorted as in the case of clipping in amplifiers. At lower frequencies, the linearity of the system
is not affected as the higher coefficients are negligible. However at higher frequencies, the
higher order coefficients cannot be negligible and the system is prone to harmonic effects.
The information carrying capacity (analogue bandwidth) of a fibre at a given distance is called
the modal bandwidth. The OM-3+ MMF (not shown), optimized for use with a VCSEL, has a
modal bandwidth of 4700MHz.km and can support a rate of 10 Gbps at a distance of 550 m in
the 850 nm window.
2.2.2. Intermodulation Distortion
Intermodulation distortion occurs when multiple frequencies interact in a system to produce
new set of the sum and difference of the original frequencies. The intermodulation distortion is
significant at the resonant frequency and it does not allow the frequencies to exceed it. This may lead to
complete filth in the performance of SCM and WDM systems.
Assuming that the input to a device is the sum of two sinusoids (A1Sinω1t + A2Sinω2t), the output
will be given by
Y(t) = ∑ [ Acos (a ω1+ b ω2)] --------(2)
a,b = 0, +/-1,+/-2,+/-3…
where a and b are the coefficients of the summation.
The distortion is significant in case of the third order component as they lie within the pass-band
limit and it cannot be removed easily. We concentrate on the second order component only for
wideband systems.
Figure 2.3: Intermodulation distortion at different frequency components. The odd terms can fall
within the passband of the system. The most unavoidable component is the third order frequency
component. The second order frequency components are of interest in wide band systems.
2.3. Dynamic characteristics of a Radio over Fiber
2.3.1. Spurious-Free Dynamic range (SDFR)
The range between the minimum signal level applied to a system and the maximum signal level
applied to the system without distortion is termed as spurious-free dynamic range (SDFR). The
SFDR (dBm/Hz2/3) is given by
SFDR = 2/3(IIP3 – N - NF) ----------- (3)
where IIP3 (dBm) is the input 3rd order intercept point and N is the noise power density at the
input of the device in room temperature (−174 dBmHz−1). The higher distortion results in lower
SFDR, which makes performance degradation in a system. The SFDR is reduced when noise
figure is high or the 3 rd order modulation distortion is high. The noise figure is high when there is
more noise in the system. The input 3 rd order intercept point is equal to the 3 rd order modulation
distortion.
Relative intensity noise (RIN) is defined as the fluctuations in the intensity of a laser due to
temperature variations and spontaneous emissions in laser. The RIN is significant in high optical
powers of photodiode (>-8 dBm). The SFDR varies linearly with RIN.
2.3.2. Intercept Point (IP)
The intercept point is the point where the power in the intermodulation product is equal to the
power in the fundamental signal. The curves of those products are inferred and plotted out as the device
saturates below this point is reached and it is an ideal condition, which does not take place in real time
practical applications. Anyhow, it is an efficient method of verifying the system dynamic characteristic
performance using spectrum analyzer in the device under test (DUT). It is the experiment in which the
powers are equal and the frequencies are spread out with equal spacing in the two-tone
intermodulation test. In DUT, the intermodulation at n th order varies as n times of increase in the input
signal. That is, third order varies as thrice times increase in the magnitude of input signal, fifth order
varies as five times increase in the magnitude of input signal and so on. This can be illustrated by the
following equation:
Y = X3.
Taking logs on both sides and multiplying by 10:
10log(Y) = 10log(X3) = 3∙10logX
≡Y(dB) = 3∙X(dB)
where Y is the output voltage and X the 3rd order product.
The higher is the intercept point, the greater is the performance of the system. The intercept
point shown together with 1 dB compression point presents a general representation of the nonlinearity of the system. According to another rule of the thumb, at any output level of the
fundamental signal in the linear region, the third order product will be below the fundamental
level at twice the distance (in dB) the fundamental level is from the output 3 rd order intercept
point (OIP3). For example, if the output of the fundamental signal is at 0 dB and the OIP3 is at 25
dB, then the 3rd order product will be at −50 dB. Another thing is that IP can be calculated from
the difference of the system gain and OIP3.
Figure 2.4: Second and third order intercepts and the slopes of the product and fundamental lines. The
IPs can be referred to the output or the input of the system.
2.3.3. Error Vector Magnitude
Error vector magnitude is an efficient tool in digital systems for the analysis of non-linearity of
the system due to signal losses.
The error vector is defined as the vector difference between the actual symbol point following
the demodulation process and the ideal distortion free symbol point (as produced by an ideal
transmitter). The actual symbol can be seen as the ideal symbol plus any noise and distortion
added by the communication system.
The error vector consists of a phase and magnitude. The phase error is due to the deviation of
the IQ resultant phase from the ideal phase while the magnitude error is due to the difference in
of the IQ resultant from the amplitude of the ideal system. The plot between Q and T below
shows the variation of the phase and magnitude with time.
The EVM depicts the signal losses in a system due to the distortions and noise. However, for
complex systems, the diagrams will become “blurred” and more difficult to identify each other.
EVM is usually given as the rms percentage (%) of the peak signal level.
It can be seen that low EVM ensures that the system performance is high as the distortions are
low.
Figure 2.5: The error vector magnitude and phase as defined on the IQ constellation plane. The phase
error is due to the deviation of the IQ resultant phase from the ideal phase. The magnitude error is due
to the difference in of the IQ resultant from the amplitude of the ideal system.
2.4. Distributed Antenna System (DAS)
The distributed antenna system (DAS) uses the RoF cable from the central hub to distribute the
power to a large number of antennas. The performance of a single antenna unit is inferior when
compared to multiple antennas as the full load power leads to scattering, diffraction and other effects.
Also at high frequencies in a single antenna unit, there will be interference between the adjacent
systems. This can be prevented by dividing the power with the help of sub remote antenna units so that
the backscattering power is increased leading to increased capacity of the system. The base stations can
be located centrally so that the system maintenance is easier. This type of wireless transmission takes
place in WLAN and in photonic transport systems using DWDM [11]. With the help of dynamic switching,
the dynamic resource allocation can be done between the base stations.
The DAS that employs co-axial fiber has the advantages of low cost, simpler and easy
maintenance and the performance of the system is good. However, the performance of the
system is reduced at high frequencies that utilize co-axial fiber due to parasitic losses and also it
has limited capacity of distributing capacity (as explained in Section 1.3).
The VCSELs and MMFs are employed using DAS in pico-cellular network systems and the
dynamic performance is overseen under low frequencies and high frequencies at which dynamic
spectrum analyzer saturation point is reached.
Advantages of Distributed Antenna System
1.
Low power consumption
2.
Easier maintenance
3.
Error free read range
4.
Maximum efficiency through optimization techniques
2.4.1. VCSELs
The vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) is a device in which the light is emitted
perpendicular to the semiconductor surface unlike the other lasers in which the light propagation is
parallel to its surface. This makes the fabrication of large number of lasers connected in parallel to each
other on the same surface. VCSELs provide effective coupling to the system and the performance of the
system is enhanced. Since it has very small surface, it provides low frequency signals and the intrinsic
currents are low. The distortions occur when the intrinsic currents are low. Therefore a low loss
resonator is required to provide lasing effect to VCSELs with the help of highly reflective Bragg mirrors.
The maximum resonant frequency is reached at higher currents and it is affected by the
temperature changes. In short, the threshold currents of VCSELs are temperature dependent.
The temperature dependent scheme of VCSELs has been developed for lower and higher values
of threshold current and it is usually carried out at a nominal emission wavelength of 850nm.
Both the VCSELs and LEDs provide efficient coupling to a fiber.
2.4.2. PIN Photodiode
A PIN photodiode is formed of an intrinsic region of high resistivity thin layer sandwiched
between the P+ and N+ doped regions. A photodiode is a reverse bias junction device in which light falls
at one end and the other ends are not illuminated. The diffusion of the charges in a photodiode will be
so fast that there is no possibility of recombination in the depletion region. At forward bias, the diffusion
of holes and electrons produces a very high depletion region, which makes thickening of that region.
Thus, there will be more absorption of light across that region causing higher quantum efficiency ( =
number of electron-hole pairs created/number of incident photons). The fast response times of this
device can be higher due to low junction capacitance but this is compensated by the longer drift
distances the carriers have to take across the junction. Another parameter used to study the
performance of this device is the responsivity, which is the ratio of generated photocurrent to the
incident power. Responsivity varies with wavelength. At cutoff wavelength (the point at which the
photon is not sufficient to excite the electron), the responsivity is very low. At reverse bias, the charges
will be evacuated from the intrinsic region causing more and more thickening of the depletion region.
The reverse bias voltage caused due to swept out charges is known as swept out voltage, which is
suitable for microwave applications.
The sources of noise in PIN Photodiodes are shot noise, dark current noise and surface dark
current. These noises may originate from the conversion process and leakage in the photodiode.
For the systems operated at high SNR, these noises should be kept as low as possible.
2.5. Parameters Affecting the Performance of RFID
The signal transmission is directly affected due to the performance parameters of the
RFID system. For example, due to chromatic dispersion there will be loss of signals leading to the
fading effects. An RFID system is said to be linear only if the output optical power matches the
input RF power. The performance parameters of RFID are:
1) SNR
2) Power reflection coefficient (K) and the impedance of the circuit
3) Frame error rate (FER)
4) Design considerations
5) Form factor of the antenna
6) Input RF power and input RF frequencies (the requirement of which depends on the
type of equipment utilized in the particular application)
7) The generated optical power
8) The extent of attenuation used for the radiation outline of the antenna
9) The design of the antenna with some performance measures
10) Optimization techniques
11) Rate of sampling
12) Resonance condition
In order to improve the efficiency of the RFID system, the electromagnetic parameters are taken
into consideration so as to improve the antenna performance and design of the system. It can be
seen that the determining of the dynamic characteristics of an RFID leads to software-defined
radio (SDR) in which the measurements represented in a graphical format are produced as
waveforms in a computer system and the dynamic response can be produced using algorithms
and then programmed with that analysis of the algorithms.
3. Design of UHF RFID Antennas
3.1. The Basic Functionalities of the Different Types of RFID Antenna
Definition: An antenna is a device that has a multi functionality within itself. An antenna can act
as a conductor, load, transducer, radiator, passive reciprocal network or as a matching element. Antenna
is basically a poor conductor that means it absorbs a some amount of energy inefficiently. The radiation
can be viewed as the focusing capacity of an antenna. It radiates because the electrons are set into
vibrations. An antenna efficiently radiates if its length is comparable to /2 and the signls are time
variant. According to Ukkonen et al. [23], a conductor placed close to an antenna will make the antenna
to radiate efficiently since the conductor reflects and the directivity increases due to increase in the
maximum power. On the other hand, a very good conductor will totally reflect the incoming signals,
which affects frequency of the antenna, and the radiating capacity will be then affected. An antenna is a
device, basically a transducer, that produces energy in the form of electromagnetic waves at the output.
However, in practical applications of RFID, it is not possible to radiate the electromagnetic power over all
the three directions equally. This is the because as per the theory of electromagnetic waves, the power is
propagated in the form of waves.
An RFID antenna can radiate efficiently for having its dimensions comparable to the wavelength
of the working frequency. However, this cannot be truly implemented in practice for a real time
RFID systems as the dimensions to be obtained become impractical. Therefore, the resonant
frequency plays a vital role here so as to produce maximum radiation. It should be noted that at
resonant condition, the impedance behaves as a pure resistance. There are different types of
antennas used in RFID, yet the following are some of the most important antennas used in RFID
applications:
1.
Magnetic dipole antenna
2.
Loop antenna
3.
Microstrip antenna
A magnetic dipole antenna is one which radiates whose magnetic field ranges within r -3. It is an
antenna whose length is a multiple of /2 and it is called as a resonant antenna. It is used in the
transmission of the received electrical signals. The dipole antenna is used for the horizontal
optimization and the induction coupling is used.
A loop antenna is used for reducing the size in which it receives the magnetic signals and it is
suitable only for short distances in which the distance of the antenna from the tag.
A microstrip antenna uses a microstrip feed, which is directly connected to the RFID antenna. In
this type of antenna, a microstrip is directly connected to the patch so that they lie on the same
substrate. This arrangement of right feed makes to remove unwanted radiations on its plane.
The coupling used may be capacitive or inductive based on the feeds. Despite the disadvantages
of this antenna, such as reduced gain, losses and reduced bandwidth and poor polarization, we
can get rid of these shortcomings, collinear in phase microstrip antennas are used proposed by
Franklin [24]. The proposed model by Rao and Johnston [25] overcomes the problem of small
bandwidth of the collinear antenna.
3.2. Parameters Considered in the Design
The following are the important parameters to be considered while designing the antennas in
the RFID applications:
1. Directivity
2. Polarization
3. Power density
4. Gain
5. Effective aperture
6. Resonant frequency
7. Radiation pattern
8. Matching Impedance
9. Bandwidth, loop size and dipole length
10.VSWR
11.Reflection coefficient
4. Modulation Techniques
4.1. Introduction to Modulation
Modulation is defined as a process of changing the waveforms of the carrier signals with respect
to the fundamental source signals in terms of amplitude, frequency and phase. There is also a reverse
operation known as demodulation, which is defined as the process of converting the modulated signals
back to the original signals. This leads to the uplink and down link coversion of the frequencies.
Modulation can also be defined as the process of coding the information, which is represented
in the form of waveforms, viz. basically a sequence of bits. Each and every single bit is a symbol.
Modulation process is carried out such that a sequence of bits are transferred in a regular
pattern in the form of amplitudes, frequencies and phase differences. This process is known as
sampling.
The original unmodulated signals are referred to as baseband signals. The disadvantages with
baseband signals are:
1.
They require a very large antenna of several kms, which is not practically
possible
2.
Since it has less strength, the signals are highly attenuated over long distances
3.
There are many inherent losses within the system itself if attempted to transmit
over long distances.
There are many modulation techniques used in RFID such as AM, FM, PCM, ASK, FSK, PSK- DPSK,
BPSK and QPSK, SSB and QAM [43]. Choosing a particular method depends on the type of RFID
application.
4.2. Different Modulation Techniques
4.2.1. An Overview of the Modulation Schemes
AM modulation is used to shift the amplitudes of the carrier signals with respect to the original
unmodulated signals. It requires a detector for its demodulation operation. In a low frequency AM, class
C amplifier cannot be employed to drive the audio power amplifier. In a high frequency AM, though it
makes easy to implement the constant low frequency IF modulated signals at each of its output stages,
the final output requires an audio power amplifier, which has to set the power level equal to the
transmitter output, and even for its high power level, it is not suitable for mobile communication. For
low frequencies, SSB can be suitable for an effective operation with less noises. The advantages of using
SSB modulation is that the cost of implementation is cheap and easy to adopt, it requires less power for
its modulation.
In the earlier section, we have discussed about intensity modulation – direct detection. It is used
to transfer the Intermediate frequencies to the Remote Unit and it requires Remote Heterodyne
Detector for converting the IF signals to RF signals for further transmission.
Intensity modulation techniques are direct detection and Mach–Zehnder modulation. In direct
detection, the modulation is carried out by intensity modulated signals from the laser diode and
they are directly modulated at the receiver end photodiode to getback the RF signals. It uses
only two signals ‘0’s and ‘1’s, which uses amplitude modulation technique. This method can be
used to obtain high transfer rates but it is less resistive to the losses. The Mach–Zehnder
Modulation provides modulation using external device MZI. These two modulation is suitable
only for Amplitude Modulation. MZI employing Remote Heterodyne Detection uses the same
photodiode as a coherent mixer, which is used to recover the RF signals [44].
Another common modulation method used in RFID is on–off keying (OOK) a sub method used in
ASK, which implements continous wave operation (CW) in which Morse code is used to send
messages. An off key is used to produce the dots by turning off the carrier signals and an on key
is used to produce the dashes on the carrier signals and an off key is used to produce the dots by
turning off the carrier signals. These signals are identified at the receiver end and converted by
an operator back into letters and numbers constituting the message.
The advantage of OOK and ASK is that the linearity is maintained throughout the system by
suppressing the losses. The main disadvantage with OOK and ASK is that they require automatic
gain control (AGC) to recover the signals from distortions at the receiver end. NRZ OOK lacks the
clock pulses [45].
QAM can be useful when AGWN is used in the optimization techniques. QAM combines both AM
and PM in its operation. It uses Amplitude alternation known as impulse channel (I) and the
phase alteration known as quadrature channel (Q). As explained earlier, AGWN is used along
with QAM to improve the dynamic characteristics by performing an SDR operation [46].
There is also another scheme of modulation used in RFID known as real-time spectrum analyzer
modulation (RTSM). This also improves the dynamic characteristics of the RFID tag [47].
In the earlier section, we have explained about the operation of a signal generator, which uses
frequency synthesizer, IQ modulator, DAC and an ALC at the output [48]. It is based on the
frequency modulation technique, in which FSK is the sub modulating technique of FM. In this
arrangement, the carrier signals from the frequency synthesizer and the signals from the DAC
are fed to two balanced modulators in which a carrier oscillator is required to phase shift the
signal with /2 and are directly fed to the IQ modulator, which is used to convert the analog
signals back to the digital signals and finally can be fed to the output through automatic level
control (ALC) to set the power according to the reference power level.
An RFID can also implement PSK modulation in which a phase shift of 180 ○ occurs, which
represents the maximum difference, and is generally termed as phase reversal. There are
subcategories of PSK used in RFID such as binary phase shift key (BPSK), differential phase shift
key (DPSK) and quadrative phase shift key (QPSK). In BPSK, when the binary 0 occurs, the carrier
signal is transmitted with one phase, but when the binary 1 occurs, it is transmitted with a phase
shift of 180○. The signals fed to the balanced modulator or analog multiplier are squared by
itself, which applies the same signal to both inputs. Squaring removes all the 180 ○ phase
shifts.The output obtained will be twice that of the input frequecy i.e., 2f. The bandpass filter set
at squared frequency passes only this signal. It is then fed to phase locked loop (PLL), which is
used to recover base band signals from frequency modulated carrier. The basic circuit of PLL
consists of a phase comparator (to detect the phase and to mix the frequencies from BPF and
VCO), VCO, which is used to control the frequency and low pass filter (LPF) [49]. An ×2 frequency
multiplier is used between the VCO and the phase detector, which is used to recover the binary
signals. Udo Karthus has illustrated the difference between ASK and PSK and as far as the theory
is concerned, PSK was a better option to ASK, as only for small modulation index ASK
performance was comparable to PSK and for higher values, there were losses [50]
In DPSK, there is no phase reference and the transmitted signal itself acts as phase reference.
The basic circuit of a DPSK consists of XNOR, 1 bit delay and a balanced modulator. The recovery
of bits will be done by comparing present bit sequence with the previous bit sequence. In its
demodulation process, the phase of the received bit is compared with the phase of the previous
bit. In this DPSK system, the BER is twice that of ordinary PSK, but it can be compensated by an
increase of Eb/N0 ratio. The disadvantage of BPSK and DPSK is that the rate of transmission of bits
does not increase if bandwidth is not increased. Some application may require a combination of
BPSK and QPSK so that for each bit there is a phase change and it is possible to encode more
than 1 bit for every phase change. BPSK can also be used in an AGWN system like QAM
modulation technique.
In QPSK, the circuit has two flip-flop registers known as bit splitters, two balanced modulators
with a carrier oscillator with 90 ○ phase shift and a linear mixer. The signals fed to one balanced
modulator is introduced with 90○ phase shift before passing it to the other balanced modulator.
This makes higher data transmission with a limited bandwidth [51]. Out of BPSK, DPSK and QPSK,
DPSK produces the lowest BER.
PCM is a modulation technique used to convert the analog frequency signals to digital frequency
signals. The PCM system consists of a sampler, quantizer and an encoder at the modulation stage
and a quantizer, decoder, a holding circuit and an LPF at the demodulation stage. The sampler is
used to reduce the continuous variant signals into infinite discrete pulses. As per sampling
theorem, the sampling frequency must be greater than or equal to the twice the modulating
frequency. The quantizer is used to convert infinite discrete pulses into a finite discrete pulses
using uniform or non-uniform step sizes. To enable non-uniform quantization, the compander is
used to use small steps for low amplitudes and higher steps for higher amplitudes.
The QAM scheme combines both ASK and PSK. The ciruit arrangement of QAM consists of I and
Q balanced modulators in which AM and PM modulated signals are combined together by
introducing 90○ phase shift with the help of a local oscillator and the resultant signals are
combined in a summer circuit. 4-QAM, 16-QAM and 256-QAM are most common in practice. 4
QAM has amplitude and phase combination patterns of 4 symbols; 16 QAM has 4 I and 4 Q
values
QAM can be used to reduce interference caused by CW operation of the amplitude frequency
modulated signals [52].
5. Improving Read Ranges
5.1. Definition
The read range of a tag is defined as the reading capacity of the tag, which is defined as the ratio
of the number of reads per second. It can be directly affected by the performances of the reader, tag and
the antenna of the RFID system. The back scattering effect also shows the capabilities of the antenna to
reflect and transmit power, capabilities of the tag to indicate that the reads have been recorded and the
information signals to be sent back to the reader.
5.2. Performance Analysis to Improve Readability
If the frequency of operation is high, the reading capacity of the tag is also high [53]. However, if
the frequency is beyond certain limit, the tag suffers from multiple spreading effect of the signals leading
to path loss and if there are enumerous tags with that high frequency operation, there is a greater
chance of collisions. Also, if the frequency of operation is too low, the tag will not detect the required tag
id, instead it may detect some other external disturbances, wherein signals from the external
disturbances are more than the signals from the reader. This means, there is a greater chance for
interference due to a narrow flow of signals.
5.2.1. Factors Influencing Readability
The supplied input power to the reader directly affects the performance of the
redability of the tag. Also, the design of the reader has an impact on its
performance. There are several specifications in the reader design and it depends on
choosing the proper standard such as EPC Global Gen2. If the frequency of operation
is the same, multiple readers will cause interference.
The tag performance may also depend on the class of the tag and the nearby
objects to the proximity of the tag. Optimization and magnetic coupling between
reader and the tag will affect the performance of the tag.
a.
The tag optimization by redundancy techniques will avoid interference
and collision problems, which helps the tag to respond to the reader without
disturbances. Thus, it helps to improve read ranges of the tag.
b.
Magnetic coupling should be effected by the impedance matching. It
directly has an effect on Q factor of the tag [54].
In addition to these, the far field and near field orientation of the tag also makes a difference in
the operation of the tag. Class 0 is slower than Class 1. Single tag, multiple tags and each
individual tag working also has an effect on the readability of the tags one to another. There
should not be repeatable reads in a tag due to closer arrangement of tags near the reader. The
higher dimension of the tag, higher is the working of the tag at high frequencies. However,
recent trends in the technology have made considerable size reduction of the tags with
microchip with higher working performances.
If it is for the antenna, the distance between the reader and antenna should be
constrained to the optimal level and the size, the type and the performance of the
antenna directly affects read ranges.
Apart from these, the other factors are [55]
modulation and demodulation
sampling and filtering
sensitivity of receiver
grounding effects
the design of the tag and the antenna.
6. Standards adopted in RFID
6.1. Definition
Some International standards are adopted in RFID for its license and effective operation. An RFID
tag detects an unique id from the reader. The identity code is provided by the supply chain manager and
the naming convention is similar to naming a protocol in the internet [56]. There are several standards
adopted in RFID such as EPC Gen 2 (EPC – 2 nd Generation), PLIB, ISO 11784, ISO 14443, ISO 15693, ISO
18047, ISO 18046, ISO 13585 and 18000–1 till 18000-7. There are many advantages and disadvantages of
using each of the standards. Choosing the best one is based on the application and the type of
processes. It is always best to prefer the standards provided by the manufactures for various design
specifications. In some systems, the authentication is also provided along with identication for security
reasons.
6.2. Importance of Standards
In the case of dense field RFID systems, choosing the particular Standard reader is important and
the synchronization should go around with the proper selection of the standards [57]. Choosing
standards are very important for selecting readers and improving the performance of the system on the
basis of the design. Adopting standards are nothing other than providing security to the implemented
RFID systems.
6.2. Working procedure
The main purpose of unique identification is security and data protection. The working
procedure of identification scheme is similar to the message conveying microprocessor and application
devices. According to Yan Liang and Chunming Rong, there are three types of RFID tags: 1) tags with no
cryptography, 2) symmetrical key cryptography and 3) public key cryptography [58].
Symmetrical key cryptography is defined as the keying provided and verified at both ends i.e.,
card and the reader. The card sends a number to the reader, which detects and sends it back to
the card and the card decrypts the information. If the information is the same as provided to the
reader, it in turn sends it to the reader, which again decrypts this information [58].
Figure 6.1: Working procedure of identification [58]
6.3. Various Types of Standards
In EPC Gen 2 standard [59], the numerical value assigned is provided by using the European
Article Number (EAN) and it is uniquely assigned by GSI, while the permission is provided by the Supply
chain manager. The permission provided by the Supply chain manager is verified and it is sanctioned by
the Supply chain organizer. This is carried out internationally and not on each and every company basis.
Coding an id consists of unique fields such as header, description, unit, patent number, data type,
property class etc. The id not only differs with the numerical values, but also with the configurations,
properties, business sectors, schemes and companies etc. The naming pattern of an RFID unique id is like
the DSN naming pattern of an internet protocol. The most common EPC formats are EPC-64 bit format
and EPC-96 bit format. The EPCIS standard is used to identify the EPC standard information and this
standard can be used by the business partners to interchange their information for trading purposes.
There are some RFID systems, which adopts EPC-Q standard.
Instead of representing with the unit number and other various data types, descriptions and
procedures, etc., using EPC Global Gen 2, ISO 13584 uses identification representation in the
form of properties and values.
7. Grounding Techniques
7.1. Definition
The grounding techniques are necessary for any electronic communication devices for its
effective operation. This is on the basis of balancing an unbalanced system, so that the signals are
effectively provided to the devices for its working and the unnecessary dissipation losses are avoided.
Grounding is a method of matching the impedances of the primary and the secondary networks. An
important advantages of grounding are protection from lightning, protection to losses due to
interference, cross-talks and prevention of sudden damage due to accomodation of large power at one
end. One such example is the use of balun in RFID systems [60]. In any grounding techniques in any
electronic application, there will be provision of a common point for grounding/earthing and the overall
bus bar will have uniform controlled distribution of signals. The shielding of the ground can be provided
by implementing coaxial cables. If the inductive impedance is high, it prevents the radio signals from
passing through the network. It should be noted that even there is a possibility of ungrounding in some
cases that is dependent on the inductive impedance. Connecting a ground wire across the ground point
prevents the signals passing into the ground, which is known as ungrounding. In RF systems, voltage
baluns does not work on a high impedance condition. This is due to the fact that in RF systems the
inductive impedance depends on not only on the length but also the frequency. That is even for smaller
lengths of the co-axial cables, the inductive impedance is high as the frequency of operation is high. If
several equipments are grounded at different points, there is a great chance for the ground loop
interference and unnecessary loss of signals. Even if several conductors are connected, there should be
only one grounding point at the center, so that it counteracts the effects of the floating impedance.
Then, there will be a uniform distribution of power across the network systems.
7.2. Measures to Eliminate Breakdown
7.2.1. Basic Considerations in Grounding
Before going for measures to eliminate the sudden breakdown of the system, there are some
basic concepts behind the grounding techniques to be taken into consideration. They are as follows:
Higher the length of the conductor, higher the impedance.
Thicker the conductor, lower the impedance.
Unlike DC circuits where the impedance is directly proportional to the length of
the wire, the impedance not only depends on its length but also the frequency of
operation. Even for shorter wires, the high impedance will be present in AC operation of
the RFID systems.
This clearly shows that the impedance of the grounding adopted in RFID systems is slightly
different than the surge impedances.
The impedance will be lesser when low power/low frequency is applied to the
antenna. This is not the proper measure to be taken for reducing the impedance as the
application requires a high frequency of operation and high impedance is inevitable.
The voltage baluns do not operate effectively at high impedance values, as it has
low breakover voltage at higher impedances and will eventually fall into breakdown even
for intermediate power values. However, baluns are efficient at lower and intermediate
impedance levels and make a balance for matching circuits.
The star network connections can be used for grounding the entire bus bar as
they will provide several series pair parallel combination of the resistances, which will
the make reduced output voltage across the distributed branches.
7.2.2. Overcoming Procedures for High Impedance
The following step-by-steps procedures can be taken to overcome the effects of high impedance.
1)
Several toroids can be connected in parallel branches across the conductors that
can have thicker and longer wires. Observe the changes in the performance and
eliminate one by one of the toroids and note down the performance. If there are
adverse effects due to impedance across those points, do not remove those toroids only.
2)
Connect the line isolators across those impedance influenced points and remove
the toroids gently.
3)
Disconnect all the secondary devices temporarily.
4)
Wrap a core around the co-axial cable that connects the receiver output to the
LNA. This makes thickening the wire, so that the impedance is reduced.
5)
Use the line isolators instead of the thick core and observe the effects.
7.2.3. Measures to Reduce Impedance
The following measures may be taken to reduce impedance:
1.
Prefer lower length of the ground wire.
2.
Prefer thick ground wire.
3.
Use more ground paths.
4.
Ensure that the ground point does not operate at resonant condition.
5.
Use counterpoise and line isolators.
6.
Alter the design of the cable; for instance, co-axial cable can be replaced with
optical cable. The skin effects and the proximity effects can be taken into consideration.
7.
The design of the solid state conductors should be such that the measures to be
taken over the losses due to corona, lightning, obstacles and the effects of the
atmosphere. Avoid the toroids across the solid state conductors where these effects are
more pronounced. Proper design measures should be taken as the conductors are made
of copper.
8.
Alter the design of the antenna circuit [61]; it may be closed loop instead of
open loop.
9.
Use longer feed leads.
8. Limitations and Advantages of RFID
The advantages of RFID are more than its disadvantages that the RFID applications are being
increased in all sorts of fields.
8.1. Advantages of RFID
Unique identification can be done with cofidentiality.
High level of security is assured.
The read–write operation ensures that more reads can be read and recorded so
that it can be monitored in future.
Centralized control ensures easy maintenance.
Higher read capabilities of the tag.
Speed of operation is high.
Precise data can be ensured in effective RFID systems.
Size reduction and simultaneous measures for effective operation have been
taken in recent trends.
Cost effectiveness can be considered in the case of some simple and centralized
RFID control systems.
8.2. Limitations of RFID
There are also limitations in RFID, which should be eliminated as possible to an extent [62].
Cost of the installation for modulation and demodulation schemes can be high
though system efficiency is high under such schemes.
The performance of the entire RFID should be adjusted with respect to the
design and tuning of the tag, design and tuning of the antenna and the design of the
reader.
The system and its parameters should be adjusted according to the set of
experiments namely DUT to improve dynamic characteristics. Several performance and
cost effective measures should be taken. The measures to be taken over the losses like
interference, collision, path losses, etc [63].
Sensitivity of the receiver depends on the modulation and demodulation and it
should be tuned accordingly so as to transmit power efficiently.
Care should be taken so that nearby obstacles and space distractions should not
detune the tag or antenna.
The design or the techniques should be taken based on the type of application.
In some cases, authentication is necessary, which irritates some people though
the unique id is detected by the tag.
9. Conclusion
The efficient working of the RFID systems lies in adjusting the direction, intensity of signals
to the tags and antennas and the distance between them, modulation and demodulation
techniques, proper design of the readers, tags and antennas and the effects due to nearby
objects and other losses. Apart from these, optimization techniques are important in the case of
dense field of the tags and the antennas. Even synchronization of the tags are not necessary if
the optimization techniques are carried out effectively [64]. This paper has thrown light on all of
these topics in a well illustrated manner. EVM, signal distortions like harmonic effects,
intermodulation effects etc are also have been clearly stated. The components such as signal
generators, spectrum analyzers, high power amplifiers, low power amplifiers and photo diodes
have been presented clearly and elaborately in this paper.
9.1. Studying the Design and Performance
Although there are some limitations in the usage of RFID, the advantages are much more than
limitations, that the RFID has spread its wings across the various fields in the globe. The limitations can
be eliminated to some extent by studying about the read ranges of the tags, basic design and working of
the equipments, the performance on the various cases, dynamic characteristics and implementation
procedures of the equipments. Finally, these are compared with the cost effective measures and
concluded for its simple and easily maintainable design and its effective operation.
9.2. Future Work
The gain of the antenna will be affected for low power operations and the perfect orientation of
the antenna by measuring the exact precision distance between the antenna and the reader
would be far difficult to achieve. Future work may focus on the effective tuning of the devices at
low power operations [65].
Although the effective performance of the microstrip antenna has been proved with some
coupling feed measures, there may be further improvement in designing the antenna with some
cost effective measures. The future work may concentrate not only the effective operation of the
microstrip antenna but also its cost effective operation.
It is clearly stated that the modulation and demodulation techniques, optimization and
grounding techniques can drastically improve the performance of the RFID. However, the future
work may be needed to compensate for the cost of installation and maintenance.
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Marketing Principles
Introduction
Marks and Spencer has its headquarters in the city of Westminster, UK which has about 300
shopping complexes around 40 countries. It has a multi range of cosmetic and costume products,
house hold products, food items, gift articles and furniture wares etc. This thesis illustrates how
marketing strategies can be framed to create appropriate marketing objectives for a defined
market and how they respond to changes in the marketing environment. It also focuses on
presenting a report to the board of directors on the marketing strategies for the particular market
in the position of a manager.
Definition
According to P.D. Bennet, Marketing is defined as “the process of planning and executing the
conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges
that satisfy individual and organizational objectives” (Bennett 1988, Gilligan & Wilson 2005)
Marketing Process and Orientation
Elements of the Marketing Process
Originally there were 4P’s elements such as Price, Product, Place and Promotion and the
marketing elements have been extended upto 7P’s from 4P’s elements which additionally include
process, physical evidence and people.
According to PG Hooley and B Nicoulaud, "Kohli and Jaworski (1990) defined market
orientation in the following terms:
a market orientation entails (1) one or more departments engaged in activities geared toward
developing an understanding of customers' current and future needs and the factors affecting
them (2) sharing of this understanding across departments, and (3) the various departments
engaging in activities designed to meet select customer needs." (PG Hooley and B Nicoulaud,
2012)
The benefits and costs of marketing orientation should establish customer-centric approach.
Benefits of Marketing Orientation
Launching a product and establishing will be convenient in the market due to marketing
strategies
Customer requirements will be met perfectly
Quality assurance
Customer care will be made easy
Sustainable marketing even with changes in the environment.
Costs of Marketing Orientation
The costs of marketing orientation involve calculation of the tangible and intangible assets. It is
mainly by focusing on producing and establishing the product and providing product quality.
Market oriented assets can be promoted through some investments, sponsorship and advertising
programs, software DB, costs involved for meetings, etc. Customer based costs are those like
product costs, technical costs, acquisition costs, ordering costs, purchase related costs, services
costs and purchase price etc. The cash flows should be leveraged by increasing the gap between
incoming-outgoing costs and decreasing capital costs. This can be brought about by the transition
from product orientation to market orientation and establishment of the best practices in CRM,
SCM and KM.
Marketing segmentation and strategies
Micro and Macro Environments
The following are the various macro and micro environmental factors that influence marketing
decisions. Macro environment is external while micro environment is internal to the
organization.
The macro environmental factors are based on the PESTEL framework which includes political,
economical, social, technological, environmental/ecological and legal factors. The Micro
environmental factors are based on the interactions of the stakeholders and intermediates of the
organization.
Segmentation Criteria
Marketing segmentation is based on the organizational requirements and the marketing
environment. It is used to discriminate the different customer groups, product quality,
features/characteristics and services. The complex marketing segmentation is generally classified
into homogenous and heterogeneous marketing segments while there are various strategic
marketing segmentation types based on the variables focusing on the elements of marketing mix.
Marketing segmentation may be particularly focusing either on the customers or on the
organization/market.
The targeting strategies and positioning are framed based on the marketing segmentation. The
marketing segmentation should satisfy the following criteria:
To be customer centric
To be quantifiable
To bring sustainability and balance over marketing changes
To reach end customers
To be profitable
To have internal similar qualities and external variable qualities
To be focused on marketing mix
To be cost effective
Impact of Buyer Behavior on Marketing Activities in Different Buying
Situations
Buyer behavior affects marketing activities in different buying situations. There are various
reasons for the consumers to prefer and buy a product and this will surely affect the marketing
strategies. The following are the buyer behaviours based on the types of the product alone and all
other factors will be considered later for complex marketing segmentation focusing on the
marketing mix. It is important to note that the buyer behaviours also depend on the marketing
structures.
Cheap goods: Buying is automatic while sometimes based on customer preferences
Convenient goods: Buying is automatic while sometimes based on customer needs,
competition and preferences
Expensive goods: Buying is based on cognizant about the product, quality, durability,
reliability, guarantee and other features.
Essential goods: Buying is automatic based on the dire need of consumption.
Targeting Strategy for a Selected Product
There are many targeting strategies in the market such as single line marketing, undifferentiated
marketing, differentiated marketing, concentrated marketing and micro marketing (includes
local/niche, individual marketing). Differentiated marketing is one such targeting strategy in
which the sales are based on different features, types and quality of the products in different
marketing segments.
We can choose differentiated marketing for gift articles, in which the consumers enjoy their full
range of preferences due to availability of the products based on different features, types and
quality. Marks and Spencer has a wide range of gift article items and differentiated marketing is
more preferable in this instance than any other targeting strategy.
Positioning of the Product
The other factors include supply-demand ratio, brand name, elements of the marketing mix and
new marketing strategic changes brought to the product.
Positioning of a selected product/service is based on the benefits from different marketing
segments. In order to effectively carryout positioning, arriving at a specific strategy, targeting,
bringing marketing changes and promoting competitive advantage are all essential. The breakthrough analysis will be effective enough if carried out with SWOT analysis while positioning a
product/service. The positioning of a product can be measured by graphical method such as
perceptual mapping, surveys and various statistical methods. The positioning is usually
performed with respect to the functions, representations, testing.
o
Functions: resolving issues, yielding advantages to customers, aiding investor’s
perspectives
o
Representations: product and brand identity, valuing society, exploring objectives
o
Testing: conducting experiments to realize, to acknowledge and to prove efficiency and
effectiveness
The positioning of a product should satisfy the following criteria:
Making uniqueness
Making significance
Distinctive cores
Durability and reliability
Should be stable over marketing changes
The steps involved in positioning are
Acknowledging target market
Being competitive
Mapping competitive position
Identifying strengths and competitive weakness
Closing the gaps
The positioning strategies are based on placing ahead of competitors, de-positioning competitors,
credibility, product functionalities, product types, utility and user interests.
Product Development, Pricing, Promotions and Marketing Mix
Gaining Competitive Advantage
A product can gain competitive advantage by some factors and making it flexible over time and
market. It is necessary to concentrate on Product Life Cycle (PLC) to achieve competitive
benefits. Competitive advantage may be in terms of cost and differentiation. The core values
should be identified and should be differentiated from the competitor values. The product should
be developed based on the emerging business requirements and should cope with competition.
Continuously mitigating product cycle plans also help to gain sustained competitive advantage
since they are framed based on the competition. Some of the success factors assuring competitive
advantage are: Scale and scope, segmentation and aggregation and core competencies. The
following are few ways of acquiring competitive advantage:
Proactive planning and continuous action plans in cycle
Improving efficiency
Decreasing durations in cycle
High share
Profitability
Increasing chances
Technical success
Arranging Distribution for Customer Convenience
The distribution should be arranged so as to reach the end customers and improve the sales of the
product. The distribution channel should be based on the size of the business, supply, product
type and the elements of the marketing mix. It is necessary to decide for the wholesaler or
retailer or monopoly sales for the distribution of the goods. Also insourcing, outsourcing,
onshore and offshore operations should be decided for the business. Customer convenience is
enhanced through various benefits offered by the distribution channels. Some of them are: Cost
and time efficient, allowing customers to buy small quantities, customer friendly sales, easy
payment and exploring meaningful sales details. The distribution may be through online or on
site depending on the sales requirements. However, there are also shortcomings in distribution
channels such as income loss, providing inappropriate product information, loss of channel
control, transits and they should be overcome through marketing strategies. The distribution
should be arranged by focusing on the following criteria:
Size of distribution channels based on the business size
Number of channel members
Distribution channel functions
Link establishment for customer accessibility
The conflicts, issues, risks and changes related to distribution channels should be managed so
that the main notion is to provide customer convenience. The following are the steps involved in
distribution:
1. Listing distribution locations: Customer accessibility should be the only main concern in
deciding the number of distribution centers and should be based on the supply, business
size and nature/type of the product. For example, distribution of the heavy bulk
appliances or those products prone to break or collapse easily should not be allowed for
more number of distributions. Three types of distribution centers are: 1) Traditional sales
model, 2) sponsored agencies, 3) Community partners.
2. Framing strategies for distribution channels: This involves deciding the factors and
prioritizing tasks so as to fulfill customer convenience, bank processes and sales
verification processes and to provide security.
3. Scaling distribution sites: It is necessary to measure the distribution quality of the
services and it should be checked against customer accessibility, customer convenience,
circulating customer information, eligibility requirements, verification processes,
compatibility of proof checking systems, retaining customer privacy and providing
security.
4. Distribution positioning: The final step is to position the distribution centers based on the
rating. It should be very specific in deciding the convenience of the location focusing on
the facilities, channel relationships and the end customers.
An online article from ‘The Community Transportation Association of America’ has
proposed a distribution site rating chart as follows:
–
(CTAA, 2012)
Price Setting
Price setting is preferred over price fixing since there cannot be uniform price distribution due to
intermediate distributions, discounts, competitors and changing marketing conditions. It should
reflect both organizational objectives and market conditions instead of keenly producing profits
alone. It should be decided for both direct and indirect customers. The following are the steps
involved in price setting:
Overview of the organizational and market objectives
Setting an initial price
Setting standard price alterations
Deciding promotion price
Suggesting payment options
There are various controllable and uncontrollable factors in price setting. They should be focused
to meet the organizational and market objectives.
Let us discuss how price setting varies with organizational objectives.
If an organization wants to be the leading head, then the price may be set maximum. However, if
the same organization wants to stand at the top position in the minds of the customers, quality
should be the main concern and the price of the product should be set accordingly. If it gains
revenue from other sources than sales profit, the price can be set lower than the declared value.
The standard products can be sold at moderately high price. For the best quality which is the
major organizational objective, the price of the product should also be kept somewhat higher. If it
makes optimal balance between the minimal material consumption and finishing costs while
product quality is high, then the product price can be set at the optimum rate. If maximum sales
should be done, then variable pricing may be the best option. If the organizational objective is to
prevent the goods in transit, the product price can be kept higher than the declared value for its
best delivery services offered since it reaches the customer as quickly as possible.
Next, let us discuss how price setting varies with variable marketing conditions.
1. The particular product price changes at least once in a year.
2. The concessions of a product and competitor’s price for that product affect the individual
sales.
3. Prices and reference prices also vary with sudden overall marketing changes related to
the product. For instance to survive in the market, the prices should be temporarily set
minimum. Another instance is that if there is an immediate inflation then reference prices
soar up high.
4. If delivery service quality or product quality often vary, then product price also changes
more frequently.
5. Product price will be altered based on changes in the macro and micro environment. The
price cycle changes prevailing in the market will differ with different consumer goods.
6. Micro environment fluctuations are more prone to affect product pricing rather than
overall inflation of the product.
7. Reference prices are temporary while it last long for macro marketing frequency
agitations.
8. Price changes will continuously prolong for the changes in the business size than
fluctuations in the price due to some marketing factors.
9. Price changes are also dependent on the quantity of sales successfully done with profits.
10. Price changes are also associated with the labor costs which are more likely to change
than product price.
Promotional activity:
Promotional activity is integrated to achieve marketing objectives. Advertising is one such
example, in which the brand name popularity increases, the features of the product will be
known fully and the customers prefer to buy the particular product. Promotional activities such
as free offerings, printing logo product details, sponsorships, exhibitions and trade fares and
public sales survey etc will directly make the customers aware of the product and hence they are
linked with the marketing objectives. These activities will create an image in the minds of the
customers about the standard and quality of the product, brand and company. Drawing
customer’s attention, creating awareness and making popularity are all done only through
promotional activities.
Extended Marketing Mix Elements
As already discussed earlier, the additional elements of the extended marketing mix are:
processes, physical evidence and the people. These elements have been additionally included to
the elements of marketing mix since the end customers want to assure things related to the
product and they ask queries to the delivering services.
Processes: Those actions related to customer care operations
Physical evidence: At present, customers themselves perform some quality checks related to the
product and directly get in touch with the subsidiary shops or the sub industries.
People: ‘Customers are kings’ and the customer services provide an interface for the customers
to ask their queries and complaints.
Advanced Marketing Strategies
Marketing Mixes for Two Different Segments in the Consumer Market
The elements of the marketing mix cannot stand as a single and there cannot be a unique perfect
marketing mix element. There always exists a combination of mixes of the marketing mix
elements. Each segment has its own choices and marketing mix will form like a matrix in which
there are many combinations of elements and segments. The objectives of mixing the marketing
mixes into the different segments are to gain competitive advantage and to promote variable
featured product sales in those segments. Also sales to be performed with variable costs and
multiple bundle sales can take place at different segments with marketing mixes. Targeting will
be performed by mixing the mixes in different marketing segments. The most suitable and
striking features are important in the marketing segments. The number of mixes and segments
combination give raise to the most favourable quality sales and the different set of people in
different (heterogeneous) groups can produce same set of characteristics within one mix element.
Various mixes satisfy various requirements of a segment and such segmentation is known as
differentiated segmentation. The following is one example of mixing the mixes in two different
marketing segments.
Consider the sales of non durable products in two different segments: segments based on 1) areas
and 2) product characteristics. Price and promotional mixes on segmentation based on product
characteristics will have more produce more quantity of sales rather than segmentation based on
areas.
Differences in Marketing Products and Services to Businesses Rather than
Consumers
The differences between business markets and consumer markets exist due to buying purpose,
demand and people perceptions.
The following are the differences in marketing the products and services based on the businesses
than consumers.
1. Business consumers prefer to buy earnestly for their processing or re-sales operation
2. Business sales are more luxurious than consumer sales
3. Business consumers require more product quality proofs than end consumers
4. Uniform demand and variable demand due to aggregate marketing fluctuations are
possible for businesses while variable demand is more possible than uniform demand for
the final consumers
5. Business consumers are lesser than final consumers
6. Business market segmentation is more likely to be geographical
7. Business oriented sales require marketing strategies to deal with the offshore and onshore
sales while consumer based sales does not require them
8. Business buying process occurs in more number of steps than consumer buying process
9. Business consumers look over their team buying decisions while final consumers look
over the decisions of their individual or small group of people.
International Marketing Versus Domestic Marketing
According to PN Ghauri and PR Cateora,
“International marketing is the performance of business activities that direct the flow of a
company's goods and services to consumers or users in more than one nation for a profit”.
(PN Ghauri and PR Cateora, 2006)
The international marketing is more preferred for large size business owners than domestic
marketing due to high economy. There exist some differences between international
marketing and domestic marketing such as: 1) distinct controlling structures, 2) rules and
legislations, 3) country currencies, 4) taxations, 5) national cultures, 6) economic complexity
and huge financial requirements, 7) different set of consumers, 8) more marketing strategies
and 9) more chances of marketing fluctuations.
Conclusions
Thus marketing strategies were framed and marketing objectives were created for a particular
market. Marketing orientation, segmentation and strategies, Product development, pricing,
promotions and marketing mix and advanced marketing strategies including international
marketing have been explained with clear illustration of using strategic marketing techniques
that would best suit the market and how the changing marketing situations influence on them.
Marks & Spencer can choose differentiated marketing for the best sales of their cosmetic,
costumes, household and gift articles.
References
1. PD Bennet, C Gilligan & SMR Wilson, Strategic Marketing Management. Planning,
Implementation and Control, 3rd edt. Elsevier Butterworth Heineman, 2005, Available at:
www.camessays.com/upload/doc/acca6.pdf [Accessed May 2012]
2. CTAA,
Distribution,
2012,
Available
at:
http://web1.ctaa.org/webmodules/webarticles/articlefiles/Distribution_Element.pdf
[Accessed May 2012]
3. PG Hooley and B Nicoulaud, Marketing Strategy and Competitive Positioning, 5 th edn,
2012,
Available
at:
http://www.amazon.co.uk/Marketing-Strategy-Competitive-
Positioning-Graham/dp/- [Accessed May 2012]
4. PN Ghauri and PR Cateora, International Marketing, 2 nd edn, 2006, Available at:
http://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/reader/-/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link
2012]
[Accessed