Vasudha Bhushan

PHILISOPHY NOTES Contents Unit 1....................................................................................................................................................... 3 1.1 Salient features of Indian ethics with reference to Purusartha: Yuga Dharma and Sanatana Dharma ............................................................................................................................................... 3 1.1.1 Meaning of philosophy .......................................................................................................... 3 1.1.2 Indian Philosophy ................................................................................................................... 3 1.1.3 Schools of Indian Philosophy ................................................................................................. 4 1.1.4 Classification of the Indian Philosophical Schools ................................................................. 4 1.1.5 Common ideas in the system of Indian Philosophy ............................................................... 5 1.1.6 Purusartha .............................................................................................................................. 6 1.1.7 Yuga Dharma and Sanatana Dharma ..................................................................................... 8 1.2 Concept of Shreyas and Preyas ............................................................................................. 10 1.2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 10 1.2.2 Meaning of Shreyas.............................................................................................................. 10 1.2.3 Meaning of Preyas ............................................................................................................... 11 1.2.4 Shreyas and Preyas as a concept ......................................................................................... 11 1.3 Varna Vyastha and Ashrama Dharma ................................................................................... 12 1.3.1 Varna Vyastha ...................................................................................................................... 12 1.3.2. Ashrama Dharma ................................................................................................................ 14 Unit 2..................................................................................................................................................... 17 2.1 Buddhist Ethics: Four Noble Truths, Eight Noble Paths, Ahimsa and Karma Bhava Chakra, Sila 17 2.1.1 Four Noble Truths ................................................................................................................ 17 2.1.2 Eight Noble Paths ................................................................................................................. 19 2.1.3 Ahimsa.................................................................................................................................. 22 2.1.4 Karma Bhava Chakra ............................................................................................................ 23 2.1.5 Sila ........................................................................................................................................ 24 2.2 Jain Ethics: Triratnas ................................................................................................................... 25 2.3 Sikh Ethics: Hukum, Nirbhau, Nirvair, Parupkar, Sewa and Sahaj .............................................. 26 2.3.1 Hukum .................................................................................................................................. 26 2.3.2 Nirbhau and Nirvair.............................................................................................................. 27 2.3.3 Parupkar ............................................................................................................................... 27 2.3.4 Seva ...................................................................................................................................... 28 2.3.4 Sahaj ..................................................................................................................................... 28 Unit 3..................................................................................................................................................... 29 3.1 Gita: Anasakta Karma, Lok Samgraha, Sva-Dharma.................................................................... 29 3.1.1 Anasakta Karma ................................................................................................................... 29 3.1.2 Lok Samgraha ....................................................................................................................... 29 3.1.3 Swa-Dharma ......................................................................................................................... 30 3.2 Gandhi: Ahimsa, Satyagraha and Antyodaya .............................................................................. 31 3.2.1 Ahimsa.................................................................................................................................. 31 3.2.2 Antyodaya ..................................................................................................................... 32 3.2.3 Satyagraha............................................................................................................................ 33 Unit 4..................................................................................................................................................... 35 4.1 Yoga and Stress Management .................................................................................................... 35 4.2 Yoga: Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharna, Dhyana, Samadhi .................... 37 4.2.1 Yama..................................................................................................................................... 38 4.2.2 Niyama ................................................................................................................................. 39 4.2.3 Asana .................................................................................................................................... 40 4.2.4 Pranayama ........................................................................................................................... 40 4.2.5 Partyahara ............................................................................................................................ 42 4.2.6 Dharna.................................................................................................................................. 43 4.2.7 Dhayana ............................................................................................................................... 44 4.2.8 Samadhi................................................................................................................................ 45 Unit 1 1.1 Salient features of Indian ethics with reference to Purusartha: Yuga Dharma and Sanatana Dharma 1.1.1 Meaning of philosophy The word ‘Philosophy’ involves two Greek words – ‘Philo’ meaning love and ‘Sophia’ meaning knowledge, thus philosophy in its widest etymological sense means ‘love of knowledge’. According to Aristotle, philosophy arises from ‘wonder’. Philosophy signifies a natural and necessary urge in human-beings to know themselves and world in which they live, move and have their being. Philosophy is the root of all knowledge and is considered as mother of all sciences. Philosophy harmonizes the highest conclusions of the different sciences, coordinates them with one another, and gives a rational conception of the whole world. It investigates the nature of the fundamental concepts of matter, time pace, life, mind, and the like and interrelates them to one-another. It is the art of thinking rationally and systematically of the reality as a whole. 1.1.2 Indian Philosophy The Upanishads are the foundation of Indian philosophy. Indian philosophy (or, in Sanskrit, ‘Darshanas’), refers to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent, including Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, and Jain philosophy. It is considered by Indian thinkers to be practical discipline, and its goal should always be to improve human life. Indian philosophy are systematic speculations on the nature of the ‘Realty’ in harmony with the teachings of Upanishads, which contain various aspects of the truth. Indian philosophy is intensely spiritual and emphasizes the need of practical realization of ‘Truth’. Since philosophy aims at knowledge of truth, it is termed in Indian literature as: ‘the vision of truth’ (dars’ana). The word ‘dars’ana’ means ‘vision’ and also the ‘instrument of vision’. It stands for the direct, immediate and intuitive vision of Reality, the actual perception of ‘Truth’, and also includes the means which lead to this realization. ‘See the Self’ is the keynote of all schools of Indian Philosophy. And this is the reason why most of the schools of Indian Philosophy are intimately associated with religious sects. ‘Indian philosophy’ is supposed by some to be synonymous with ‘Hindu Philosophy’ 1.1.3 Schools of Indian Philosophy The following are the major philosophical schools or systems(dars’anas): • The Nyaya system of Aksapada Gautama • The Vaise esika system of Maharshi kanada • The Samkhya system of Kapila muni • The Yoga system of Patanjali • The Mimamsa system of Jaimini • The Vedanta system of Badarayana Vyas • The Bauddha system of Guatama Buddha • The Jaina system of Mahavira • The Carvaka system of Carvaka 1.1.4 Classification of the Indian Philosophical Schools According to the traditional principle of classification, schools or systems of Indian philosophy are divided into two broad classes: • Orthodox (astika, Vedic): Under this school belong the six chief philosophical systems (popularly known as sad-darsana): (i)Mimamsa, (ii)Vedanta, (iii) Sankhya, (iv) Yoga, (v) Nyaya, and (vi) Vaisesika. These are regarded as orthodox (astika), not because they believe in God, but because they accept the authority of the Vedas. The six systems mentioned are not the only orthodox systems, they are the chief ones, and there are some other less important orthodox schools such as the Grammarian school, the medical school, etc. • Heterodox (nastika, Non-Vedic): The chief three schools of the materialists are: (i) Carvakas, (ii) Buddhas, and (iii) Jains. They are called heterodox because they do not believe in the authority of Vedas 1.1.5 Common ideas in the system of Indian Philosophy Every system of philosophy is based on ‘epistemology’ or ‘theory of knowledge’. i) The Reality of the world: All schools of Indian philosophy recognize the reality of the world. Even the Advaita Vedanta of Samkara regards the world as a mere appearance from the standpoint of the absolute. ii) The Reality of the self: The reality of the permanent self is generally admitted. Among the heterodox schools the Carvaka and Buddhist deny the reality of the permanent self. iii) The law of Karma: All schools of Indian philosophy except the Carvaka believe in the law of Karma. iv) Transmigration: The idea of transmigration is common to all systems of Indian philosophy except the Carvaka school. v) Initial Pessimism and Ultimate Optimism: Indian philosophy is branded as pessimistic. Life is full of sufferings. But all kinds of pain can be destroyed in the state of liberation. So, Indian philosophy is characterised by initial pessimism and ultimate optimism. vi) Bondage: Another common view held by all Indian thinkers except Carvaka school, is that ignorance of reality is the cause of our bondage and sufferings, and liberation from these cannot be achieved without knowledge of reality. vii) Liberation: The idea of liberation is common to all the systems of Indian philosophy except the Carvaka school. viii) The means to liberation: The different systems of Indian philosophy lay down the means to the attainment of liberation. ix) Pramanas: Indian philosophy is not dogmatic and uncritical. 1.1.6 Purusartha Puruṣartha is a composite Sanskrit word from Purusha and Artha. Purusha means "human being", "soul" as well as "universal principle and soul of the universe". Artha in one context means "purpose", "object of desire" and "meaning". Together, Purusartha literally means "purpose of human being" or "object of human pursuit". It is a key concept in Hinduism, and refers to the four proper goals or aims of a human life. The four purusarthas are: • Dharma (righteousness, moral values), • Artha (prosperity, economic values), • Kama (pleasure, love, psychological values) and, • Moksha (liberation, spiritual values). Hindu scriptures conceive that the ultimate state of permanent happiness, bliss, and desire lessness is called as ‘Moksha’ or liberation from bondage, as the ultimate goal of life; and proposes a system of four-fold goals of life, called Purushartha, that both helps individuals to fulfil their desires and at the same time slowly transcend them. The four-fold goals of human life are- Dharma (duties/righteousness), Artha (wealth), Kama (desires) and Moksha (liberation). Together, these mutually non-exclusive four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha. All of the four Purusarthas are important, but in cases of conflict ‘Dharma’ is considered more important than ‘Artha’ or ‘Kama’ in Hindu philosophy and ‘Moksha’ is considered the ultimate ideal of human life. Depending upon one’s deeds (karma) one is able to reach the stage of moksha (end of cycle of birth and rebirth) or liberation. Moksha is considered to the ultimate goal for any human. After this, Dharma takes priority over kama and artha All four Purusarthas are important, but in cases of conflict, Dharma is considered more important than Artha or Kama in Hindu philosophy. Moksha is considered the ultimate ideal of human life. At the same time, this is not a consensus among all Hindus, and many have different interpretations of the hierarchy, and even as to whether one should exist. Translation of the word ‘Purusartha’: Alf Hiltebeitel translates Purusartha as "Goals of Man". Prasad clarifies that "Man" includes both man and woman in ancient and medieval Indian texts. Olivelle translates it as the "aims of human life". Purusartha is also referred to as Caturvarga. The concept of moksha developed only in the Upanishads, while the early Vedas treating the goals of human life commonly refer to kāma, artha and dharma as the "trivarga" or "three categories of possible human pursuits. The vital texts which discuss about the purusartha are: Gautama, Apastamba, Baudhayana & Vasistha, and Dharma-sastras Dharma The root of the word dharma is "dhri", which means "to support, hold, or bear". It is the thing that regulates the course of change by not participating in change, but that principle which remains constant. The meaning of the word dharma depends on the context, and its meaning has evolved as ideas of Hinduism have developed through history. Dharma encompasses ideas such as duty, rights, character, vocation, religion, customs and all behaviour considered appropriate, correct or morally upright. Dharma is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion. It has multiple meanings in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for dharma, as the word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations. • In Hinduism: dharma signifies behaviours that are considered to be in accord with Ṛta, the order that makes life and universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living". • In Buddhism: dharma means "cosmic law and order" and is also applied to the teachings of the Buddha. In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for "phenomena". • In Jainism: dharma refers to the teachings of tirthankara and the body of doctrine pertaining to the purification and moral transformation of human beings. • In Sikhism: the word dharma means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice At the individual level, some texts of Hinduism outline four asramas, or stages of life as individual's dharma. • Brahmacarya: the life of preparation as a student, • Gṛhastha: the life of the householder with family and other social roles, • Vanaprastha or Aranyaka: the life of the forest-dweller, transitioning from worldly occupations to reflection and renunciation, and • Sannyasa: the life of giving away all property, becoming a recluse and devotion to moksa Dharma comes as the second most important concept in Hindu literature, after the concept of Reality. Various meanings have been associated with dharma, with the progress of Indian civilization. Some of these are rita, yajna, satya, a characteristic, property, law, social code, conduct, morality, merits, virtues, rituals, and duty. Artha The word artha literally translates as "meaning, sense, goal, purpose or essence" depending on the context. As a concept, it has multiple meanings, all of which imply "means of life", activities and resources that enable one to be in a state one wants to be in. Artha applies to both: (i) Individual level- artha includes wealth, career, activity to make a living, financial security and economic prosperity. (ii) Government level- artha includes social, legal, economic and worldly affairs • • • • John Lochtefeld describes artha as the means of life, and includes material prosperity Karl Potter explains it as an attitude and capability that enables one to make a living, to remain alive, to thrive as a free person Gavin Flood explains artha as "worldly success" without violating dharma (moral responsibility), kama (love) and one’s journey towards moksha (spiritual liberation) Flood clarifies that artha in ancient Hindu literature, as well as purushartha, is better understood as a goal of Man (not a man). Kama Kama means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu and Buddhist literature. Kama often connotes sexual desires and longing in contemporary literature, but the concept more broadly refers to any desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, desire for, longing to and after, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, enjoyment of love is particularly with or without enjoyment of sexual, sensual and erotic desire, and may be without sexual connotations Kama is one of the four goals of human life in Hindu traditions. It is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing the other three goals: dharma, artha and moksha Various definitions of Kama • Gavin Flood explains kama as "love" without violating dharma (moral responsibility), artha (material prosperity) and one's journey towards moksha (spiritual liberation). • John Lochtefeld explains kama as desire, noting that it often refers to sexual desire in contemporary literature, but in ancient Indian literature kāma includes any kind of attraction and pleasure such as those deriving from the arts. • Karl Potter describes kama as an attitude and capacity Moksha Moksha, also called vimoksha, vimukti and mukti is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism which refers to various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriological and eschatological senses, it refers to freedom from saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth. In its epistemological and psychological senses, moksha refers to freedom from ignorance: self-realization, self-actualization and self-knowledge In Hindu tradition, moksha is a central concept and the utmost aim to be achieved through three paths (dharma, artha, and kama) during human life 1.1.7 Yuga Dharma and Sanatana Dharma Yuga Dharma Yuga dharma is that aspect of dharma that is valid for a Yuga, an epoch or age as established by Hindu tradition. According to Hindu philosophy, the world is made up of four main “Yugas” – ages, epochs or cycles of time – each made up of tens of thousands of human years. These 4 yugas are: (i) Satya Yuga, (ii) Treta Yuga, (iii) Dvapara Yuga, and (iv) Kali Yuga. The descending yugas see a gradual decline of dharma, wisdom, knowledge, intellectual capability, lifespan, emotional and physical strength. The Hindu sacred writings are broken into two groups: Sruti writings (such as the Vedas) regarded as timeless in character, and Smriti writings that focus on less timeless elements. Yuga Dharma is based on the Smitris. Some scholars describe Yuga dharma as a lesser aspect of dharma, since it is constantly changing. Such scholars distinguish Yuga dharma as the dharma of social interaction: law, ethics, etiquette and so on. According to Swami Vivekananda: Yuga Dharma comprises the minor laws, which guide the working of our everyday life. They belong more properly to the Puranas, to the Smrtis, and not to the Sruti. These have nothing to do with the other principles. Even in India, these minor laws have been changing all the time. Customs of one age, of one yuga, have not been the customs of another, and as yuga come after yuga, they will still have to change. The four yugas have been described below: • Satya Yuga (Krita Yuga, "the age of truth" or the "Hindu golden age"): the first and best yuga in a cycle. It is the age of truth and perfection. This yuga has no crime and all humans are kind and friendly. The Krita Yuga is so named because humans are long living, powerfully built, honest, youthful, vigorous, erudite and virtuous. This yuga starts with humans having an average lifespan of 100,000 years and stature of 21 cubits (33 ft, 6 inches) • Treta Yuga: the second yuga in a cycle. "Treta" means "third" and it has three quarters virtue and one quarter sinfulness. In this age, virtue diminishes slightly. At the beginning of the age, many emperors rise to dominance and conquer the world. This yuga starts with humans having an average lifespan of 10,000 years and stature of 14 cubits (22 ft, 4 inches) • Dvapara Yuga: the third yuga in a cycle. "Dvapara" means "two" and it has two quarters virtue and two quarters sinfulness. In this age, people become tainted with qualities and aren't as strong as their ancestors This yuga starts with humans having an average lifespan of 1000 years and stature of 7 cubits (11 ft, 2 inches) • Kali Yuga: the last yuga in a cycle. There is one quarter virtue and three quarters sinfulness. It is the age of darkness and ignorance. People stop following dharma and lack virtue. This yuga starts with humans having an average lifespan of 100 years and stature of 3.5 cubits (5 ft, 3 inches) Sanatan Dharma Sanatana dharma is a term that refers to the eternal Truth of Hinduism. Sanatana denotes “that which is without beginning or end” or “everlasting’ and the roots of this phrase can be traced back to ancient Sanskrit literature. The term, sanatana dharma, can translated as “the natural and eternal way to live.” In fact, sanatana dharma is widely considered to be the original term used to describe what we now know as Hinduism. The term was used by Gandhi in 1921 while describing his own religious beliefs. The Hindu sacred writings are broken into two groups: Sruti writings (such as the Vedas) regarded as timeless in character, and Smriti writings that focus on less timeless elements. Sanatan Dharma is based on the Shruti writings, and some scholars Some scholars describe Sanatan dharma as the overall, unchanging and abiding principals of dharma Sanatana dharma encompasses the list of duties and practices that all Hindus must comply with. This list of practices includes virtues like honesty, goodwill, patience and generosity. Following this code, a person can reach ‘Moksha’- a state of spiritual liberation, self-knowledge and enlightenment. The concept of spiritual freedom is an integral part of sanatana dharma. Sanatana dharma places spiritual experiences above religious issues and uses yoga practice to reach moksha. The practice of yoga is a vital part of this process as it allows the yogi to achieve a union with their spiritual side. Indeed, it could be said that yoga offers a practical and consistent means of adding sanatana dharma to anyone's life. It is considered to be more rooted in experience than belief or ideology, and inclusive of all because of its applicability to people in all places and at all times. Some see the term sanatana dharma as a more accurate term than Hinduism, in part because the sanatana dharma is without sectarian or ideological divisions. It is, therefore, still used by some Hindu leaders to refer to Hinduism, portraying it as the unified religion of all. It often rejects previously long-established socioreligious systems based on interpretations of sectarian followers of an individual sant (saint or pontiff). Sanatana Dharma was designed as a way of life designed to best ensure the continuity of humanity on this earth and provide the entire population with spiritual sustenance. In According to the notion of sanatana-dharma, the eternal and intrinsic inclination of the living entity (atman) is to perform seva (service). Sanatana-dharma, being transcendental, refers to universal and axiomatic laws that are beyond our temporary belief systems. However, today Sanatana Dharma is associated only with Hinduism 1.2 Concept of Shreyas and Preyas 1.2.1 Introduction According to the Katha Upanishad, all the human endeavors or actions fall under two categories: (i) Shreyas, and (ii) Preyas. Shreyas and Preyas are two-fold approaches optionally available to mankind in the journey of life as explained in Kathopanishad. In other words, there is not a single aspect that lies outside these two. According to the Katha Upanishad II, “The Shreyas is one thing and the Preyas is another. These two have different purposes which binds a man. The Shreyas (good) and the Preyas (pleasant) will approach a man and the only wise will distinguish the difference between the two.” 1.2.2 Meaning of Shreyas Shreyas is a Sanskrit term meaning "that which brings light or happiness and is good." It can also be translated as meaning "auspicious," "fortune" or "conducive to well-being and prosperity”. The word ‘Shreyas’ is derived from the root-sound ‘shri’ which means: to cause to lean or rest on, lay on or in, fix on, fasten to, direct or turn towards, spread or diffuse light or radiance or beauty over. The word ‘Shreyas’, therefore, means that which diffuses light, brings happiness and bliss, and is good. The word Shreyaskara means that which promotes happiness and is favorable. In yogic philosophy, the word, Shreyas, is often used to refer to an approach to life in which immediate gratification and short-term pleasure is delayed or deferred in order to pursue greater goals. This is considered the best approach for long-term happiness. Bhagavad Gita advocates a Shreyas way of life, which represents the: delay immediate pleasure and reward in order to pursue greater spiritual growth and ultimate happiness. Shreyas is the spiritual path available to mankind Characteristics • Shreyas means what is good • Shreyas deals with virtues and strengths • Shreyas deals with spiritual outlook, so they are considered to be superior in nature • According to the scriptures, the wise men perform them, while the fool chooses Preyas over Shreyas 1.2.3 Meaning of Preyas Preyas is a Sanskrit word which can be translated as “dearer”, “more agreeable” or “more desired”. Preyas can also mean “immediately palatable,” and as such it is known in yogic and Hindu philosophy as a way of life which is based on seeking instant gratification. The word Preyas is derived from the root ‘Prii’ which means: to please, gladden, delight, gratify, cheer, comfort, soothe, propitiate; to like, love, be kind to, to refresh. So, the word Preyas means that ‘which is pleasant’. Preyas is that which attracts us even at first sight, because it can give us immediate pleasure. However, it may not, mostly not, give us true happiness and peace that we hanker for even in the long run. If one lives their life according to Preyas, they make choices as to what will bring the most immediate pleasure. This may include sensory enticements, worldly enjoyment and material gains. The Bhagavad Gita explains the concept of Preyas as a way of living that only gratifies the senses in the short term. Preyas has a strong appeal, but its rewards are only fleeting. Characteristics • Preyas means pleasure • Preyas deals with the sense of bound actions. In other words, dealing with those actions which give pleasure or are pleasant in nature. • Majority of mankind deals with such actions alone. • Preyas deals with pleasure or they are pleasant oriented. • Preyas are regarded as inferior in nature as they are directed towards the worldly outlook 1.2.4 Shreyas and Preyas as a concept The Kathopanishad speaks of twin concept of Shreyas (lasting good) and Preyas (immediate satisfaction). For the Upanishad, Shreyas is the path less travelled by mankind and Preyas is the path which is frequently followed by mankind. In Shreyas, there is an initial phase of toil and apparent trouble and a later stage of unending bliss. In Preyas, there is an initial phase of temporary excitement and shallow happiness. But the later phases of Preyas is that of unending distress and trouble. All humans without exception have to accept one of the two paths of Shreyas or Preyas. This is because mind can never remain without activity even for a moment. The Upanishad speak of Shreyas and Preyas in the ultimate sense, in the spiritual sense, however the concepts can be applied in all the situations of life. In the journey of life, we often find ourselves standing at the junction of two paths, the good and the pleasant (Shreyas and Preyas). The quality of our life depends upon what we choose between the two. We need to exercise this choice in our dayto-day life until we reach moksha, the ultimate freedom. Choice has to be made between good and pleasant. ‘What appears pleasant in the beginning may not be good and vice versa’ According to a verse in Kathopanishad from between Shreyas (that which is good for the Atman) and Preyas (that which is pleasing to the senses) the wise one always chooses the Shreyas. Sometimes Preyas is thought of as the worldly path available to mankind, whereas Shreyas is the spiritual. Thus, Preyas can be considered to be a valuable step on the spiritual journey, as it gradually leads to Shreyas as long as the practitioner learns to discriminate and renounce its lures. In a true sense Preyas is something pleasing to the senses and leads to failure and disappointment. And Shreyas is something good for the growth of the Atman which ultimately leads to ‘nihShreyas’, the perfect happiness. However, Preyas can gradually leads to Shreyas if one learns to mentally renounce its attractions. The result of this choice made with determination is permanent. This inspires one to practice moral values which bring about ‘Chitta Suddhi’. It is shown that the Absolute Brahman is realized only when there is purity in one’s thought, word, and deed. The success of the result depends on the extent of effort expended. 1.3 Varna Vyastha and Ashrama Dharma 1.3.1 Varna Vyastha The term ‘Varna’ is derived from Sanskrit root ‘Vri’, which was evolved by Shri Yaskacharya in ‘Nirukta’. The word ‘varna’, means: to choose, to cover, or color and it refers to the ‘Sva-dharma’ (personal duty/purpose of life) chosen by each individual in his/her life according to his/her inherent nature (Svabhava, Guna) or it may refer to the Svabhava itself that drives him/her to spontaneously choose particular actions as his/her Svadharma. The Purana stresses that the four Varna’s that originated from the Supreme Purusha are to be recognized/designated by their Atma-Achara (natural activities or personal duties according to inherent nature i.e., Svadharma). Thus, identification of Svabhava/Guna becomes crucial for designating a particular varna to an individual The Bhagavad Gita speaks about the creation of four Varnas based on Guna (natural qualities and tendencies) and Karma (personal duties) and that the duties have been allotted based on the Gunas that arise from Svabhava. Manu Smriti describes how Brahman allotted different Swadharma (personal duties) to people born with different Svabhava (inherent nature) for the sake of protecting and sustaining the Universe. The Svabhava of an individual is determined by two components: (i) the Svabhava (Guna/Varnanatural tendencies) of the parents that one inherits, and (ii) the Samskaras (mental impressions) that one inherits from past lives. It is for this reason, ‘Birth’ or ‘Janma’ was used as an identifying factor for determining Varna There are three stages in the implementation of the ideals of Varna: • Identification of the Varna of any individual, • Classification of the Varnas, and • Assignment of different duties to individuals exhibiting different Varna. According to the Hindu scriptures, there are only 4 varnas. With regards to the classification of people based on their Guna-Svabhava: (i) Brahmanas, (ii) Kshatriyas, (iii) Vaishyas, and (iv) Shudras. The Mahabharata assigns a color to each Varna that symbolically represents the attributes/Svabhava associated with that Varna, reflecting the three qualities of nature (Prakriti): Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas. According to Adi Shankaracharya: • Brahmana: are one in whom there is a predominance of Sattva • Kshatriya: are one in whom there is both Sattva and Rajas, but Rajas predominates • Vaishya: are one in which both Rajas and Tamas exist, but Rajas predominates; • Shudra: are one in whom both Rajas and Tamas exist, but Tamas predominates. Bharma: His function is to learn, share and preserve the eternal knowledge of the race (in our case, the Veda). It is often mistaken that Brahmana is the one with spiritual realization - his function is scholarship more than realization. Realization is a result of following one's Varna dharma (simply put, doing properly what one does, and a Brahmana may also attain realization). Bharma is said to be of satvik nature According to the Bhagavata Gita, Bharma have: control of the internal and external organs, austerity, purity, forgiveness, straightforwardness, Jnana (Knowledge of the scriptures), Vijnana (experiential understanding of what is presented in the scriptures) and Astikyam (faith and conviction in the truth expounded in the scriptures regarding God, etc.), as their duties. Kshatriya: Kshatriya is the one who belongs to Kshatriya varna. This is the martial class and forms the military defense and administration of the society. A kshatriya's functions are to rule and protect the society. They also learn all forms of knowledge. Because of the knowledge gained by a kshatriya he is considered to be of Satwika nature, and because of the martial aspect he is of rajasic nature. Thus, he is Satwika-rajasic. According to the Bhagavata Gita, Kshatriya have the natural qualities such as: heroism, boldness, fortitude, capability, and also not retreating from battle, generosity, and lordliness. Vaisya: Vaisya is the productive class of the society, and his primary functions are trading and business. Making the society prosperous is their primary function. A Vaisya generates wealth, and distributes it for the social well-being. Since artha is the predominant purushartha for a Vaisya, he is usually of rajasic-tamasic nature. Vaisya are mostly indulged in agriculture, cattle-rearing and trade. Vaishyas are associated with the Purushartha of ‘Artha’ (gathering of wealth), because their Svabhava drives them to pursue wealth and prosperity Sudra: Sudra is the service/artisan class and covers most of the occupations, like engineering, agriculture, mining, metal work etc. Based on these temperaments and functions, the smritis outline dharma for each of these varnas, their duty towards their profession and their role in the society. The Hindu scriptures clearly give a wide framework by which people can be designated and classified according to their inherent temperaments. Nonetheless, this four-fold Guna based Varnas and the assignment of ideal duties that a person with a particular Svabhava must practice will act as general guidelines, which would not only help societies to evolve their own practical models according to their own unique social conditions, it will also help each individual to understand his/her place in life and Dharma, such that each person may choose his/her Svadharma according to his/her Svabhava and attain material and spiritual success The Varna model honors Karma, Dharma, and higher consciousness, and Varna combined with Ashrama (stages in life) system facilitates each individual to accomplish all the Purushartha (life purposes- righteousness (dharma), wealth (artha), desires (kama), and liberation (moksha) in life. In fact, a clear correlation between the four Varnas and the four Purushartha (goals of life) can be established. Though the four purushartha are equally applicable to all human beings irrespective of their Varna, there is also a clear correlation between the Svabhava of a person and the Purushartha he is most likely to consider as central to his life. The concept of ‘Varna’ is often equated with the ‘caste’ and the ‘caste system’ and is considered as the root cause of discrimination and oppression present in Indian society. However, the Hindu scriptures clearly reveal that the scriptural conception of Varna has no resemblance to the present practice of the caste system 1.3.2. Ashrama Dharma Ashram dharma is the term that describes the Hindu concept of duty as it relates to each of the four stages of life. Dharma includes conduct, duties, virtues and a way of living that is in accord with the moral law of the world. The ashramas are known as the stages of life, each of which has its responsibilities for an honorable life and spiritual fulfillment. Ashram dharma is the term that describes the Hindu concept of duty as it relates to each of the four stages of life. Dharma includes conduct, duties, virtues and a way of living that is in accord with the moral law of the world. The ashramas are known as the stages of life, each of which has its responsibilities for an honorable life and spiritual fulfillment. Ashram dharma reflects the Hindu idea of society in which everyone plays an ordered role that may be determined by caste, age, profession, marital status and other factors. Each ashrama stage places different levels of emphasis on dharma, with different stages viewed as either steps or different paths to the attainment of moksha (freedom from the life-death-rebirth cycle). The ashrama dharma, in its current form, recognizes four ashramas or stages in the life of a human being: (i) Brahmacharya (stage of studentship), (ii) Grihasta (the stage of a householder), (iii) Vanaprastha (stage of a forest dweller), and (iv) Sanyasa (stage of renunciation). Additionally, each stage also specifies what one should do in each of the stages and were meant for males only Brahmacharya: The Celibate Student Brahmacharya is a period of formal education lasting until around age 25, during which, the student leaves home to stay with a guru and attain both spiritual and practical knowledge. The student has two duties: (i) to learn the skills of his life, and (ii) to practice unwavering devotion to his teachers. During this period, he is called a Brahmachari as he prepares for his future profession, as well as for his family, and social and religious life ahead. Grihastha: The Householder The Second Ashrama begins at marriage when one must undertake the responsibility for earning a living and supporting a family. At this stage, Hindus first practice dharma, but also pursue wealth or material gratification (artha) as a necessity, and indulge in sexual pleasure (kama), under certain defined social and cosmic norms. This ashrama lasts until around the age of 50 Vanaprastha: The Hermit in Retreat The Vanaprastha stage is one of gradual withdrawal. The person's duty as a householder comes to an end. At this age, he should renounce all physical, material, and sexual pleasures, retire from his social and professional life and leave his home for a forest hut where he can spend his time in prayers. Sannyasa: The Wandering Recluse Ashrama 4 is one of renunciation and the realization of dharma. At this stage, a person is supposed to be totally devoted to God. He is a sannyasi, he has no home, no other attachment; he has renounced all desires, fears, hopes, duties, and responsibilities. He is virtually merged with God, all his worldly ties are broken, and his sole concern becomes attaining moksha or release from the circle of birth and death. Brahmacharya: which is known as the bachelor-student stage when celibacy is practiced for the purpose of focusing on education. Grihastha: which is known as the family stage when the yogi must fulfill familial and social obligations. Vanaprastha: which is the stage when the children have left home and the yogi transitions from worldly occupations to renunciation and reflection. Sannyasa: which is the final stage when the yogi gives away property, becomes a recluse and devotes himself to spiritual matters and the attainment of moksha The symbolism and significance of the four asramas in human life, based upon my study and understanding, is illustrated below. Unit 2 2.1 Buddhist Ethics: Four Noble Truths, Eight Noble Paths, Ahimsa and Karma Bhava Chakra, Sila Buddhist ethics are traditionally based on what Buddhists view as the enlightened perspective of the Buddha, or other enlightened beings such as Bodhisattvas. The Indian term for ethics or morality used in Buddhism is Sila (Pali). Sila in Buddhism is a code of conduct that embraces a commitment to harmony and self-restraint with the principal motivation being nonviolence, or freedom from causing harm. It has been variously described as virtue, moral discipline and precept. The source for the ethics of Buddhists around the world are the Three Jewels of the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. The Buddha is seen as the discoverer of liberating knowledge and hence the foremost teacher. The Dharma is both the teachings of the Buddha's path and the truths of these teachings. The Sangha is the community of noble ones (ariya), who practice the Dhamma and have attained some knowledge and can thus provide guidance and preserve the teachings. 2.1.1 Four Noble Truths The core of Buddha’s teachings lies in the Four Noble Truths: (i) the truth of suffering (Dukkha), (ii) the truth of the cause of suffering (Samudaya), (iii) the truth of the end of suffering (Nirhodha), and (iv) the truth of the way that leads to the end of suffering, or Nirvana (Magga). They are traditionally identified as the first teaching given by the Buddha, and are considered as one of the most important teachings in Buddhism. The Buddha's first sermon after his enlightenment centered on the Four Noble Truths, which are the foundation of Buddhism. Four Noble Truths 1. Suffering (Dukkha): According to Buddha, human life is full of suffering, pain, lack of satisfaction, and unfulfilled desires. Suffering may be physical or mental. It’s rare to find the ultimate happiness or the utmost satisfaction in anything the people do or experience. Everything in life is temporary and conditional. Even the body and other material things are the part of it, but people see the happiness in it and are left with the incapability of satisfying the desires. Acknowledging suffering does not mean your pessimistic; it’s all about being realistic. 2. The Root of Suffering (Samudaya): Buddhism asserts the main cause of suffering is desire and attachment. Buddha said that you must successfully accomplish the journey from desire to denial in order to realize the root cause of suffering. He also stated that it is the human tendency to constantly search for something else after satisfying a single need. This continuous outward search is temporary and that’s why all humans remain unsatisfied. 3. End of Suffering (Nirhodha): Buddha taught that you must understand that suffering is temporary and it may only end if you want it to end. Otherwise, there is no possible way to come out of it. To reduce the suffering, you will have to change your response to anything that happens to you, since a person has no control over the things that happens to him/her. People themselves are the solution to their problems, difficulties, and pain. And all such things can be attained if you know the right path to enjoy the cessation of suffering. 4. The Path (Nirvana): The path of ending sufferings will lead to spiritual enlightenment. It is a state of mind that experiences spiritual joy and the ultimate happiness with no desire. Constant practice of meditation, ethical conduct, and developed wisdom helps humans to attain this supreme stage. However, it takes a lot of time to understand and accumulate such knowledge and power. 2.1.2 Eight Noble Paths Within the fourth noble truth is found the guide to the end of suffering: the noble eightfold path. The eight parts of the path to liberation are grouped into three essential elements of Buddhist practice: (i) Ethical Conduct, (ii) Mental Discipline, and (iii) Wisdom. The Buddha taught the eightfold path in virtually all his discourses, and his directions are as clear and practical to his followers today as they were when he first gave them. The eight-noble path, is a way of life to be followed, practiced and developed by each individual. It is self-discipline in body, word, and mind, self-development, and self-purification. It has nothing to do with belief, prayer, worship, or ceremony. In that sense, it has nothing which may popularly be called “religious.” It is a Path leading to the realization of Ultimate Reality, to complete freedom, happiness, and peace through moral, spiritual, and intellectual perfection. The Eight Noble Path • • • • • • • • Right understanding (Samma ditthi) Right intention (Samma sankappa) Right speech (Samma vaca) Right action (Samma kammanta) Right livelihood (Samma ajiva) Right effort (Samma vayama) Right mindfulness (Samma sati) Right concentration (Samma samadhi) Practically the whole teaching of the Buddha, to which he devoted himself during 45 years, deals in some way or other with this path. He explained it in different ways and in different words to different people, according to the stage of their development and their capacity to understand and follow him. All the eight paths are linked together and each helps the cultivation of others These eight factors aim at promoting and perfecting the three essentials of Buddhist training and discipline namely: • Virtue (Sila), • Mental Discipline/Mind (samadhi) and • Wisdom (Panna). 1.Virtue: Virtue (Sila) is built on the vast conception of universal love and compassion for all living beings, on which the Buddha’s teaching is based. The Buddha gave his teaching “for the good of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of compassion for the world.” According to Buddhism, for a man to be perfect there are two qualities that he should develop equally: (i) Compassion (karuna), and (ii) Wisdom (panna). Where compassion represents love, charity, kindness, tolerance, and such noble qualities on the emotional side, or qualities of the heart, while wisdom would stand for the intellectual side or the qualities of the mind. If one develops only the emotional, neglecting the intellectual, one may become a good-hearted fool; while to develop only the intellectual side and neglecting the emotional may turn one into a hard-hearted intellect without feeling for others. Therefore, to be perfect one has to develop both equally. Now, in Ethical Conduct (Sila), based on love and compassion, are included three factors of the noble eightfold path: (i) Right Speech, (ii) Right Action, and (iii) Right Livelihood. Right Speech Right speech means abstention: (i) from telling lies; (ii) from backbiting and slander and talk that may bring about hatred, enmity, disunity, & disharmony among individuals or groups of people; (iii) from harsh, rude, impolite, malicious, & abusive language; and (iv) from idle, useless, & foolish babble and gossip. When one abstains from these forms of wrong and harmful speech one naturally has to speak the truth, has to use words that are friendly and benevolent, pleasant and gentle, meaningful, and useful. One should not speak carelessly: speech should be at the right time and place. If one cannot say something useful, one should keep “noble silence.” Right Action Right action aims at promoting moral, honorable, and peaceful conduct. It admonishes us that we should abstain from destroying life, from stealing, from dishonest dealings, from illegitimate sexual intercourse, and that we should also help others to lead a peaceful and honorable life in the right way. Right Livelihood Right livelihood means that one should abstain from making one’s living through a profession that brings harm to others, such as trading in arms and lethal weapons, intoxicating drinks or poisons, killing animals, cheating, etc., and should live by a profession which is honorable, blameless, and innocent of harm to others. One can clearly see here that Buddhism is strongly opposed to any kind of war, when it lays down that trade in arms and lethal weapons is an evil and unjust means of livelihood. 2. Mental Discipline Under mental discipline, are included three other factors of the eightfold path: (i) Right Effort, (ii) Right Mindfulness, and (iii) Right Concentration. Right Effort Right effort is the energetic will: (i) to prevent evil and unwholesome states of mind from arising, (ii) to get rid of such evil and unwholesome states that have already arisen within a man, (iii) to produce, to cause to arise, good, and wholesome states of mind not yet arisen, and (iv) to develop and bring to perfection the good and wholesome states of mind already present in a man. Right Mindfulness Right mindfulness is to be diligently aware, mindful, and attentive with regard to: (i) the activities of the body (kaya), (ii) sensations or feelings (vedana), (iii) the activities of the mind (citta) and (iv) ideas, thoughts, conceptions, and things (dhamma). With regard to sensations and feelings, one should be clearly aware of all forms of feelings and sensations, pleasant, unpleasant and neutral, of how they appear and disappear within oneself. Concerning the activities of mind, one should be aware whether one’s mind is lustful or not, given to hatred or not, deluded or not, distracted or concentrated, etc. In this way one should be aware of all movements of mind, how they arise and disappear. Right Concentration The third and last factor of mental discipline is right concentration, leading to the four stages of ‘Dhyana’, generally called ‘Trance or Recueillement’: • In the first stage of Dhyana: passionate desires and certain unwholesome thoughts like sensuous lust, ill-will, languor, worry, restlessness, and skeptical doubt are discarded, and feelings of joy and happiness are maintained, along with certain mental activities. • In the second stage of Dhyana: all intellectual activities are suppressed, tranquility, and “onepointedness” of mind developed, and the feelings of joy and happiness are still retained. • In the third stage of Dhyana: the feeling of joy, which is an active sensation, also disappears, while the disposition of happiness still remains in addition to mindful equanimity. • In the fourth stage of Dhyana: all sensations, even of happiness and unhappiness, of joy and sorrow, disappear, only pure equanimity and awareness remaining. 3. Wisdom The remaining two factors, namely: (i) Right Thought and (ii) Right Understanding, constitute wisdom in the noble eightfold path. Right Thought Right thought denotes the thoughts of selfless renunciation or detachment, thoughts of love and thoughts of non-violence, which are extended to all beings. It is very interesting and important to note here that thoughts of selfless detachment, love and non-violence are grouped on the side of wisdom. This clearly shows that true wisdom is endowed with these noble qualities, and that all thoughts of selfish desire, ill-will, hatred, and violence are the result of a lack of wisdom in all spheres of life whether individual, social, or political. Right Understanding Right understanding is the understanding of things as they are, and it is the four noble truths that explain things as they really are. Right understanding therefore is ultimately reduced to the understanding of the four noble truths. This understanding is the highest wisdom which sees the Ultimate Reality. According to Buddhism there are two sorts of understanding. What we generally call “understanding” is knowledge, an accumulated memory, an intellectual grasping of a subject according to certain given data. This is called “knowing accordingly” (Anubodha). Real deep understanding or “penetration” (Pativedha) is seeing a thing in its true nature, without name and label. This penetration is possible only when the mind is free from all impurities and is fully developed through meditation. 2.1.3 Ahimsa The word “Ahimsa” is from the Sanskrit language and means ‘non-harm/injury’ and is commonly translated into English as “non-violence”. Non-violence or Ahimsa is one of the cardinal virtues and an important tenet of Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. It is a multi-dimensional concept, inspired by the premise that all living being is to hurt oneself. It has been related to the notion that any nonviolence has karmic consequences In Buddhist thought, Ahimsa is also an important concept. Out of the five precepts (Pancasila). The five percepts are a code of ethics undertaken by the followers of Buddhism. These are the moral virtues or duties to be cultivated. It is similar to the five-fold Yama of Yogic Philosophy Ahimsa is the first precept of Buddhism. This precept of Ahimsa is applicable to both the Buddhist layperson and the monk community. Ahimsa means to avoid doing harm to other living things. Taking the life of animals, even small creatures like insects is against this percept Buddhism teaches us non-violence towards others; violence towards other living things is contrary to the teachings of the Buddha. The Buddha taught us to overcome and avoid suffering. Therefore, we cannot impose suffering on others. Killing not only causes suffering for the person who is killed but also causes suffering for their family and friends who have lost their loved one. It is also the seed of future suffering, with bad karmic consequences for the killer. Buddha taught compassion and love: The Buddha also taught us to show love and compassion to others in place of hate and violence, and not just love for our friends but equally for our enemies, or those who seek to do us harm. One cannot become enlightened without compassion; killing is the fundamental opposite of compassion. The only exception might be — in the opinions of some — a mercy killing such as euthanasia for terminally suffering beings, or defending another innocent being from harm. But when I refer to killing, I am referring principally to war, murder and killing. Buddhists are generally opposed to war; it goes against the fundamental teachings of Buddhism and the first precept. However, Buddhists are against the practice of war — not against the soldiers fighting in it 2.1.4 Karma Bhava Chakra Bhava-cakra, also called Wheel of Life, in Buddhism, is a representation of the endless cycle of rebirths governed by the law of dependent origination, shown as a wheel clutched by a monster, symbolizing impermanence. Bhāvachakra, "wheel of life, “consists of the words ‘bhāva’ and ‘cakra’. The word Chakra derives from the Sanskrit word meaning "wheel," as well as "circle" and "cycle". The bhavasakra is a symbolic representation of samsara (or cyclic existence). It is on the outside walls of Tibetan Buddhist temples and monasteries in the Indo-Tibetan region, to help ordinary people understand Buddhist teachings. It is used in Indian Buddhism & Tibetan Buddhism. The Bhavachakra is painted on the outside walls of nearly every Tibetan Buddhist temple in Tibet and India, to instruct non-monastic audience about the Buddhist teachings. Elements of the Bhavachakra: The Bhavachakra consists of the following elements: • The pig, rooster and snake in the hub of the wheel represent the three poisons of ignorance, attachment and aversion. • The second layer represents karma. • The third layer represents the six realms of samsara. • The fourth layer represents the twelve links of dependent origination. • The fierce figure holding the wheel represents impermanence. It is also Yama, the god of death. • The moon above the wheel represents liberation from samsara or cyclic existence. • The Buddha pointing to the white circle indicates that liberation is possible. Symbolically, the three inner circles, moving from the center outward, show that the three poisons of: (i) ignorance, (ii) attachment, and (iii) aversion give rise to positive and negative actions; these actions and their results are called karma. Karma in turn gives rise to the six realms, which represent the different types of suffering within samsara The fourth and outer layer of the wheel symbolizes the twelve links of dependent origination; these links indicate how the sources of suffering—the three poisons and karma—produce lives within cyclic existence. The fierce being holding the wheel represents impermanence; this symbolizes that the entire process of samsara or cyclic existence is impermanent, transient, constantly changing. The moon above the wheel indicates liberation. The Buddha is pointing to the moon, indicating that liberation from samsara is possible. Second Layer: Karma The second layer of the wheel shows two-half circles: • One half-circle (usually light) shows contented people moving upwards to higher states, possibly to the higher realms. • The other half-circle (usually dark) shows people in a miserable state being led downwards to lower states, possibly to the lower realms. These images represent karma, the law of cause and effect. The light half-circle indicates people experiencing the results of positive actions. The dark half-circle indicates people experiencing the results of negative actions. People on the dark path, through much disturbance, move down realms of existence while those on the bright path peacefully and smoothly keep moving up. 2.1.5 Sila Sila (Sanskrit) or Sala (Pali) is normally translated into English as ‘virtuous behaviour’, ‘morality’, ‘ethics’, ‘precept’. It is an action praised through the body, speech, or mind, and involves a designated effort. It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi, and panya) and the second paramita. It pertains to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of sala are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment. Sila is the foundation of Samadhi/Bhavana (meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts encourages not only peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internally, but also peace within the community, which is externally. According to the Law of Karma, keeping the precepts are praiseworthy and it acts as reasons which would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Maintaining these precepts keeps the cultivator free from rebirth in the four miserable spheres of existence. Sala refers to overall principles of ethical behaviour. These are various levels of sila, which are equivalent to ‘basic morality’ (five precepts), ‘basic morality with asceticism’ (eight precepts), ‘novice monkhood’ (ten precepts), and monkhood (vinaya). Common people generally set about to live by the five precepts which are common to all Buddhist school. The five precepts are disciplining rules in order to lead a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate as well. The five precepts are: • To refrain from taking life. (non-violence towards sentient life forms) • To refrain from taking that is not given (not committing stealing) • To refrain from sensual misconduct • To refrain from lying • To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness 2.2 Jain Ethics: Triratnas Triratna has been derived from Sanskrit word “Three Jewels” are also called Threefold Refuge in Buddhism. The Triratnas comprises the buddha, the dharma (doctrine, or teaching), and the sangha (the monastic, or community). In Jainism, the three jewels (also called ratnatraya) are understood as: (i) Samyag Darshana (right faith or perception), (ii) Samyak Jnana (right knowledge), and (iii) Samyak Charitra (right conduct). One of the three cannot exist exclusively of the others, and all are required for spiritual liberation, The Triratna is symbolized frequently in art as a trident. Triratna in Jainism is the three basic components or the three jewels that together constitute the path to liberation i.e., ‘Mokshamarga’. The Jain philosophy asserts that a person obtains everlasting happiness only when Karma is completely eradicated from the soul. Each soul can attain liberation, a supreme spiritual state, by realizing its intrinsic purity and perfection. The aim of Jain life is to achieve liberation of the soul. This is done by following the Jain ethical code, or to put it simply, living rightly by following the three jewels of Jain ethics. The three parts to this are: (i) right faith, (ii) right knowledge, and (iii) right conduct. It is necessary to see the appropriate characteristics of the ‘Triratna’ which constitute that path. They must coexist in a person if he is to make any progress on the path of liberation. The absence of one makes the ascent impossible. Samyag Darshan (Right Faith): Right Faith is the basis upon which the other two jewels (right knowledge and right conduct) depend. Hence, it has been said that a person must attain the first jewel (right faith). This is the basic conviction in the fundamentals of Jainism because it has been asserted that only on the acquisition of Right Belief, the Knowledge and Conduct become right. Right faith or perception creates awareness of reality or truth. Samyak Jnana (Right Knowledge): One should strive after Right Knowledge, after attaining Right Faith. Right Knowledge has been defined in Jain scriptures as "that knowledge which reveals the nature of things neither insufficiently (Naya), nor with exaggeration, nor falsely, but exactly as it is and with certainty (Pramana)". It has also been stated that Right Knowledge consists in having full comprehension of the real nature of soul and matter. Right Knowledge drives the person to right actions. Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct): After Right Belief and Right Knowledge, the third, but the most important path to the goal or Moksha, is Right Conduct. In Jainism, Right Conduct is given the utmost importance. Conduct becomes perfect only when it is in tune with Right Belief and Right Knowledge. It is, therefore, the importance of Right Conduct in the process of self-realization consists in the fact that it is only when Right Knowledge based on Right Belief is translated into practical and spiritual discipline that the path of emancipation of soul from the cycle of births and deaths becomes smooth. Right Conduct leads him to attainment of liberation. 2.3 Sikh Ethics: Hukum, Nirbhau, Nirvair, Parupkar, Sewa and Sahaj The word Sikh means learner or disciple and Sikhism began with Guru Nanak - C.E) Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded during the 15th century in the Punjab region, by Guru Nanak Dev and continued to progress with ten successive Sikh gurus (the last teaching being the holy scripture (Guru Granth Sahib Ji). This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the ‘Gurmat’ (literally 'of the gurus'). 2.3.1 Hukum Hukam is a Gurmukhi word derived from the Persian "hukm", meaning command or order. The word is commonly used to refer to the Shabd (hymn) that is read after the Ardas prayer is said in the presence of the Sikh holy scripture, Sri Guru Granth Sahib. This first Shabd that is read is called the Hukamnama or just Hukam for short. However, Hukam is also important as a basic concept in Sikhi; the adherents of this faith believe in the "Hukam of the Lord" - The Will of the Almighty Lord - Guru Nanak Hukum is regarded as one of the primary concepts of Sikhism. The whole of the Universe is subject to the Hukam of the Creator God, and nothing ever happens without the Will of Him. For the Sikh, the acceptance of His Hukam is a concept that needs to be learnt and understood. By living in harmony with the Divine Will or Hukam brings everlasting peace. This does not imply that a Sikh does not have his or her "Free-Will – All this means is that the Sikh must bring his will in line with the Will of God. What is God’s Hukum? The Sikh Scriptures outline the ways in which one can bring their own thinking in line with the Hukam. If one engages in the service of God's creation, this is the best way of working in harmony with the Divine Will. Further, by remembering Waheguru one becomes aware of "God desires" and "Divine essence" within the person is realised. By following these "Divine Values" that benefit His Creation, one ends the cycle of Karma and Transmigration. 2.3.2 Nirbhau and Nirvair The word ‘Nirbhau’ means ‘without fear’ and the word ‘Nirvair’ means ‘without any enemies’. These two Gurmukhi words show the God’s pervasive power and his compassion. Additionally, it also shows his over-ruling control of His creation and his mercy The word ‘Nirbhau’ not only indicates fearlessness but is also the absence of fearfulness. Similarly, Nirbhau also implies sovereignty and unquestioned exercise of Will. The word ‘Nirvair’ implies, besides absence of enmity, the positive attributes of compassion and impartiality. Together the two words mean that God loves his handiwork and is the dispenser of impartial justice. 2.3.3 Parupkar The word ‘Parupkar’ is based on two root words- ‘Pariya’ and ‘Oopkar’. The word ‘Pariya’ refers to stranger, alien, foreign entity and the word ‘Oopkar’ means to do good, be generous, to do the right thing. So, the word ‘Parupkar’ means to do good to a stranger, to be generous to a foreign entity, and to be nice to stranger Parupkar is one of the major principles of Sikhism. It means to share with others and help the people in need. The Sikhs believe in helping others and making the world a better place. According to the Sikh philosophy and principles Sikhs are supposed to share their wealth within the community and outside by giving Dasvand and practicing charity (Daan). 2.3.4 Seva The word ‘Seva’ has been derived from Sanskrit work ‘Sev’ which means ‘to serve, wait or attend upon, honour, or worship’. The word Seva is usually translated as ‘service’ or ‘serving’. However, the English translation does not convey the sense in which the term is used in Sikh tradition. The word Seva has two connotations: (i) it means to serve, to attend to, to render obedience, etc, and (ii) it means to worship, to adore, to reverence, to pay homage to. All Sikhs are encouraged by their Guru (Guru Granth Sahib) to perform Seva or Selfless Service. This is not only good for community relations but also is good for the moral uplifting of the person. Sikhs are also encouraged to help the community by performing unpaid works in various places such as hospitals, community centres, etc. Volunteers engaged in Seva are known as ‘Sevadars’ and for many Sikhs this activity of Seva forms an essential part of their life, providing spiritual fulfilment and practical benefits. Sikhism is founded on principles of ‘Sarbat da bhalla’ - working towards the "common good of all". For the people belonging to the Sikh community, this means reaching out to serve and uplift all of humanity as an expression or devotion to the Creator. Many other Sikh practices, such as Guru-kaLangar, kirtan, paath, etc., depend on the performance of Seva by many in the worshipers. So, the principles of Seva underpin many Sikh values - such is the importance given to Seva in Sikhism 2.3.4 Sahaj The word ‘Sahaj” has been derived from twin Sanskrit word: ‘saha’ which means ‘together’, and ‘dja’ which means ‘born’ Thus, it means born together (with oneself). In Sikh philosophy, Sahaj refers to a state of mental and spiritual balance without the least interference of ego; unshaken natural and effortless serenity attained through spiritual discipline. The concept of Sahaj is pivotal and central in Sikhism and it relates to the highest spiritual state of humanly attainable and has thus deepest connotations attached to it. The ordinary meaning of Sahaj is ‘just what it should be’ or ‘just normal’. In other words, a simple human proposition, that a man should become: a man par excellence, a real man, no adhesions, no defaults, no accretions, no deviations. Hence, it signifies innate nature, or one`s natural spontaneous self-shorn of all external conditioning influences that cramp the soul. Sahaj is, thus, renascent freedom or liberation of the soul. Unit 3 3.1 Gita: Anasakta Karma, Lok Samgraha, Sva-Dharma One of the most valuable, deep, and profound contributions of India to the world civilization has been the Bhagavad Gita: a text that truly encapsulates the essence of Hindu philosophy and Sanatana Dharma. The Bhagavad Gita (literal meaning ‘the songs of the Lord ‘) is one of the celebrated sacred works of Hindus, and is Considered as an important piece of Smrti literature. The Bhagavad Gita, also referred to as Gita, is a 700–verse Dharmic scripture that is part of the ancient Sanskrit epic Mahabharata. This scripture contains a conversation between Pandava prince Arjuna and his guide Krishna on a variety of philosophical and ethical issues. 3.1.1 Anasakta Karma Anasakta is a Sanskrit term which means non-attachment, equipoise, selfless duty orientation, and effort in the absence of concerns for the outcome. The word karma is derived from the Sanskrit ‘kri’, meaning ‘to do’. In its most basic sense karma simply means action, and yoga translates to union. Thus, karma yoga or Anasakta Karma literally translates to the path of union through action. This is the path of selfless action (Anasakta karma) without expectation of rewards. However, in Vedantic philosophy the word karma means both action and the effects of such action. Karma yoga or Anasakta Karma is described as a way of acting, thinking and willing by which one orients oneself toward realization by acting in accordance with one’s duty (dharma) without consideration of personal self-centred desires, likes or dislikes. One acts without being attached to the fruits of one’s deeds According to the Bhagavata Gita, work done without selfish expectations purifies one’s mind and gradually makes an individual fit to see the values of reason. Krishna stated that it is not necessary to remain in the external solitude, or remain actionless, in order to practice a spiritual life, since the state of action or inaction is primarily determined in the mind 3.1.2 Lok Samgraha The word ‘Lokasamgraha’ connotes ‘social harmony’, as well as the ‘world of preservation’, because its two component words ‘Loka’ and ‘samgraha’. ‘Loka’ denotes mankind or the world and ‘samgraha’ implies protecting, keeping, regulating. Though interpreted in several ways, all notations of Lokasamgraha propagate some commonalities- viz, the good of the society and unity/oneness. Lokasamgraha is the most significant advice given by Lord Sri Krishna to the warrior Arjun, (Mahabharata) to perform the task, he was set out to perform Lokasamgraha implies making people adhere to do their respective duties and making them refrain from following the wrong path. Thus, according to the Bhagavata Gita, Lokasamgraha is not allowing people to fall from the path of Dharma, of Duty, of Truth. The renunciation or selflessness action done for public good is called as Lokasamgraha. the Bhagavata Gita states implicitly that the object of all actions should be Lokasamgraha: involvement with the world, bringing the world together, welfare of the world. These duties may collectively be labelled Lokasamgraha, which could etymologically be analysed as ‘holding’ (from grah, to grasp) ‘together’ (sam) ‘the world’ (loka). There are several notable and cited interpretations of ‘Lokasamgraha’ in the Bhagavata Gita, but what remains universal is their conformity to the idea that the universe establishes interdependence and connectivity. Lokasamgraha, highlights the concept of interconnectedness because it emphasizes that we are truly human only when we are interconnected with the universe, and in community with other persons. the concept of Lokasamgraha further displays the implicit wisdom that the essence of all actions is action for the common good. According to Vinoba Bhave: ‘Lokasamgraha as ‘keeping people together and on the right path’ According to Dr. Sarvapelli Radhakrishnan: Lokasamgraha stands for the unity of the world, the interconnectedness of society 3.1.3 Swa-Dharma The word ‘Swa-Dharma’ has been derived from two words: ‘Swa’ and ‘dharma’. The word ‘Swa’ means ‘self’ and dharma is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘dhr’: “sustain, support, uphold,” and also has a wide range of meanings, including truth, cosmic law, reality, righteousness, correctness, integrity and duty. ‘Sva-dharma’ means “own dharma” and has been translated as “own duty” and “responsibilities’. Every person has unique duties and responsibilities and this “own dharma” or ‘Svadharma’ is unique to that person because everyone has different capacities for righteousness. Swa-dharma is our personal dharma, which is the dharma applicable to our context, situation, maturity, and profession in life and ‘Swa-dharma’ can change as our context in life changes, and as we grow spiritually. Swadharma is doing what you think is right with Sankalpa (motivation) being in Satwika (purity) - devoid of anger, greed, in the larger welfare. The ‘Swadharma’ or ‘Kartavya dharma’ of Shrimad Bhagavata Gita is based on the three terms outlined in it. These are: • The ‘Atma’ is immortal and whole, • Body is mortal and subordinate. • One’s own ‘duty’ is indispensable and most important. Swadharma is that action which is in accordance with your nature. It is acting in accordance with your skills and talents, your own nature (Svabhava), and that which you are responsible for (karma). A person’s Swadharma (Swa, own, and dharma, duty) is their own unique role in life or way of being in the world, which it is their duty to realize and fulfil. Swadharma is not destiny, which would deny the reality of human choice, but rather a set of capacities that when fully developed allow us to take our place in the world. Any action that does not make you feel afraid or restless is Swadharma. That action which you feel compelled to do, without which you feel restless is Swadharma. That is why it is said in the Bhagavad Gita, ‘Swadharma nidhanam shreyah paradharmo bhayaavahah’. When we follow that which comes naturally to us in our life, then it brings abundance and prosperity to us. When we flow in accordance with our nature, we grow from within. Any action that uplifts us is our Swadharma. Dharma is that which holds the mind, intellect, memory and our inner soul together in harmony. Growth comes when we follow our Swadharma. 3.2 Gandhi: Ahimsa, Satyagraha and Antyodaya 3.2.1 Ahimsa Throughout his career, Gandhiji championed the cause of Ahimsa or non-violence. By that he could easily disarm even a powerful enemy. His experience in South Africa had made him bold to use nonviolence as a great weapon throughout his life. According to Gandhiji: Non-Violence is the basic nature of man: Gandhi had regarded God as truth and love. Love imamates from the heart of a man where God dwells. So, Gandhi envisaged God and love as one. To him “When you want to find truth as God, the only inevitable means is love, that is, non-violence. And since believe that ultimately means and ends are convertible terms, I should not hesitate to say that God is love”. Thus, non-violence is a godly quality which everyone should follow. Non-violence as self-suffering: Gandhi put stress on self-suffering which is the other name of nonviolence. Gandhiji told people to renounce everything and endure every pain. He cited the instance of sage Dadhichi and said that self-sacrifice is the basic principle of our culture. Non-violence as the weapon of the strong: To Gandhi, non-violence is the weapon of the strong. One who endures sufferings, is bold and he can only practice non-violence. Non-violence teaches people to be fearless. Violence is the resort of the weak. The followers of non-violence never become weak and succumb to the whims and caprices of others. According to him ‘Non-violence does not mean weak submission to the will of the evil-doer. It means putting of one’s whole soul against the will of the tyrant’ Non-violence prompting one to compromise: Non-violence teaches to compromise with the opponent. One should not be obstinate; rather one should come forward to compromise with the opponent. Besides imposing one’s idea upon others, a person should be easy to accept other man’s viewpoint. This attitude makes a Satyagrahi to achieve his goals. Non-violence fostering spiritual power: A satyagrahi derives his spiritual power from non-violence. That power illuminates the dark corner of the mind of an individual and prompts him to fight against injustice, oppression and tyranny. In that fight, a Satyagrahi never turns back or becomes weak. Thus, non-violence enhances the spiritual power in man and prepares his path to achieve goal High place of non-violence in ethics and religion: Ahimsa has been attached high position in ethics and religion. Gandhiji cited the examples of Buddha, Mahavir, and Christ before people and convinced them that emphasis has been upon Ahimsa in every religion. Thus, Gandhiji inspired the mass and mobilised them through the principle of non-violence. This became a powerful arrow in his quiver which he used against the British authority in India and became successful 3.2.2 Antyodaya Antyodaya and Sarvodaya are the socioeconomic thought of development whose aim was prosperous and happy society achieved through morality. The word ‘Sarvodaya’ means ‘the rise or welfare of all’. Sarvodaya implies participation of all kinds of people irrespective of class, creed, caste, and religion. Antyodaya, means uplifting of the weakest section of the society and Sarvodaya is a broader term, which means development of all. Gandhiji’s idea of development was of ‘Sarvodaya through Antyodaya’. His concept of ‘Antyodaya and Sarvodaya’ is the main concept in the entire Gandhian theory and philosophy and is an exceptional and novel technique to resist evil. Sarvodaya was first used by Gandhi as the title of his 1908 translation of John Ruskin's tract on political economy, "Unto This Last", and Gandhi came to use the term for the ideal of his own political philosophy. Later Gandhian, like the Indian nonviolence activist Vinoba Bhave, embraced the term as a name for the social movement in post-independence India which strove to ensure that self-determination and equality. For Gandhiji, Sarvodaya is the true answer for all types of social or political problems experienced by Indian society. Sarvodaya purposes at the spiritualisation of politics. It seeks to replace party conflict’s, jealousies and competition by the sacred law of cooperative mutuality and dominant altruism. Sarvodaya attaches importance to ‘Lokniti’. The concept of Lokniti signifies self-restraint, self-abnegation, selfless service to the people, discipline, faith in God and performance of duties with benevolent motive. Additionally, Sarvodaya aims at the spiritualisation of politics. It seeks to replace party conflict’s, jealousies and competition by the sacred law of cooperative mutuality and dominant humanity. The main principles of Sarvodaya philosophy are: • There is no centralized authority. • All people will be imbued with the spirit of love, truth, non-violence, and self-sacrifice. Society will function on the basis of non-violence • Sarvodaya idea contains the content of egalitarianism. It rests on the principle of true equality and liberty. It stands opposed to exploitation of any kind • Sarvodaya views work as an offering to the Lord • Sarvodaya philosophy stands opposed to parliamentary democracy and party system. Sarvodaya stands for establishment of an integrated cooperative society. • Sarvodaya movement makes an sincere and bold attempt to create the necessary atmosphere that brings together individual with an unwavering faith in the welfare of all 3.2.3 Satyagraha Satyagraha is one of the main concepts of Gandhian theory and philosophy, and his exclusive contribution to the modern Indian political thought. Through satyagraha, Gandhi aimed at resisting any kind of unjust, impure or untruthful acts. Through this concept, he also aimed at maintenance of love and self-purification. Satyagraha also enables elevation of spiritual and moral qualities of an individual The major function of Satyagraha is not to injure the enemy. The concept advocates that it is through suffering that there are achievements. Satyagraha has two positive features: (i) it showers blessings on those who practice it, and (ii) it blesses those individuals against whom satyagraha is practiced. Satyagraha aims at furtherance of love and self-purification. Satyagraha explained that there is a direct relationship between the purity of suffering and the extent of suffering. The theory of Sarvodaya has three major purposes: (i) to purifies the sufferer, (ii) to intensifies favourable public opinion, and (iii) to make a direct appeal to the soul of the oppressor Satyagraha is basically a way of life, which guides the modes of political activism undertaken by the followers of its principle (or satyagrahis). On a personal front Satyagraha involves a life which is committed to truth, chastity, non-attachment and hard-work. On the political front, it involves utilisation of non-violent measures to curb the opponent, and ideally to convert him rather than to coerce him into submission. A satyagrahi wants to make the evil-doers see the evil that they are indulging into, and realize their injustice The ultimate objective of satyagraha is to achieve success, with cheerfulness and love, unlike passive resistance that is undertaken in a situation of weakness and despair. Ultimately, Satyagraha offers substantial and effective opposition to injustice and tyranny in comparison to passive resistance Techniques of Satyagraha: Some of the major techniques of Satyagraha are: (i) non-cooperation, (ii) civil disobedience, (iii) Hijrat, (iv) fasting, and (v) strike Non-cooperation: Satyagraha is one of the weapons of Satyagraha to force the unjust and immoral power to rectify his mistakes. The main aim of non-cooperation is to strike the imagination of people as well as the social ostracism. Gandhi was of the opinion that injustice prevails in the society only when both, the government and the people extend their cooperation. Non-cooperation cannot be regarded as a negative creed, but it is very much a positive philosophy of constructive and social development. Civil Disobedience: According to Gandhiji civil disobedience is a method of violating the established order of the state in a non-violent and peaceful manner. Civil disobedience is an effective and bloodless substitute for the armed revolt. Hijrat: Hijrat implies voluntary exile from one’s permanent place of habitation. One of the main reasons for the people to resort to Hijrat is when they feel oppressed either due to: (i) loss of selfrespect, or (ii) honourable living. In such situations, people attempt to migrate permanently to other places. Therefore, Hijrat is another non-violent method of protest to make the oppressor realize his inhuman and unjust acts of behaviour against the poor, the weak, just and innocent people. Fasting: Fasting is another technique suggested by Gandhi in his non-violent struggle for freedom. Gandhi was of the opinion that those who are spiritually fit and have purity of mind and thought, humility, discipline and faith should alone undertake fasting. According to Gandhi, people who have no moral character should not undertake fasting either for legitimate or illegitimate purposes. Strike: Strike is considered as a voluntary suffering undertaken for the transformation of the erring opponent. This is the last device a satyagrahi can use for demanding justice for legitimate cause as well as the redressal of the grievances. A strike is meant to end injustice, inefficiency, corruption and short-sightedness. In strike adequate care should be taken to ensure that it remains non-violent as well as peaceful and makes demand meaningful, just and feasible Unit 4 4.1 Yoga and Stress Management The word ‘stress’ has been derived from the Latin word- ‘Stringere’, which means ‘to be drawn tight’. Stress can be defined as a complex, dynamic process of interaction between a person and his/her life. Stress can also be explained as- the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker. According to one of the studies conducted, stress-related disorders evolve gradually through four recognizable stages: • In the first stage: psychological changes such as anxiety, irritability, and insomnia arise, due to over-stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. • In the second stage: symptoms such as high blood pressure, elevated heart rate, and increased intestinal motility surface. • In the third stage: a more profound physical or biochemical imbalance sets in, • In the final fourth stage: irreversible symptoms that often require surgical or long-term management appear. In the age of highly energetic and competitive world, man is exposed to all kinds of stresses that can affect him in all realms of life. Stress can affect one’s health, work performance, social life, and the relationship with family members. There can be various sources for stress. These are known as "stressors." A person’s experience is created by his/her unique perceptions of what he/she encounter in life (based on our own mix of personality traits, available resources, and habitual thought patterns). A situation may be perceived as "stressful" by one person and merely "challenging" by someone else. Simply put, one person’s stress trigger may not register as stressful to someone else. Stress produces numerous physical and mental symptoms which vary according to each individual's situational factors. It is very important to control stress and hence stress management has become extremely important. Stress management is a wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies aimed at controlling a person's level of stress. The process of stress management is named as one of the keys to a happy and successful life in modern society. Although life provides numerous demands that can prove difficult to handle, stress management provides a number of ways to manage anxiety and maintain overall well-being. Yoga as a technique for stress-management Yoga is a mind-body practice and is considered as one of many types of complementary and integrative health approaches. Yoga brings together physical and mental disciplines that may help you achieve peacefulness of body and mind. This can help you relax and manage stress and anxiety. Yoga has long been known to be a great remedy for stress. Yoga comprises of various popular stressreducing techniques such as- exercise & learning to control the breath, clear the mind, and relax the body. Creating a consistent yoga routine is the best way to experience the difference yoga can make in your life. Yoga helps to connect the breath to your body movements. As we practise yoga, a person becomes more aware of his breath and how the body is feeling. This means that by practicing yoga one can become more aware of signals that our body is sending when we are beginning to get stressed so that we can then respond to these signals in a more mindful way. Benefits of Yoga for stress management Union of mind, body, and soul: A combination of breathing exercises and asana helps is uniting the mind, body, and soul. Imbalance of these gives birth to health issues and unwanted mental stress. Health experts and yogis have confirmed that yoga has relieved people from stress to a great extent. Improved Sleep: Some forms of exercises in yoga helps a person to sleep peacefully. Majority of the people complain of the inability to sleep properly due to various issues troubling them in and out in their life. Increased Energy: Breathing exercises are very important in yoga for stress management. The slow breath patterns along with inhaling & exhaling techniques bring more positive energy to your body. Scientifically, it helps the oxygen to pass through your organs by making you feel relaxed. Increased Concentration: Yoga asanas help is relaxing the body by overcoming stress. A person usually experiences forgetfulness when we are worried about something that’s disturbing us. It leads to a confused state of mind. Yoga brings an improved concentration to deal with situations with a calm mind. Experience deep relaxation: Meditation is an important factor in yoga for stress management. One of the essential things expected during stress management is the ease of mind. Yoga with meditation balances the alpha waves that are needed to relax your mind. While you do the breathing exercises, your heart rate tends to become normal and blood pressure normalizes. 4.2 Yoga: Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharna, Dhyana, Samadhi The word ‘yoga’ means ‘unity’. It offers a way of life that can much more transformational. The word ‘yoga’ is understood differently by different people: for some it’s purely a physical exercise, a way to get stronger, healthier and more flexible; for others it’s meditating each day, and for others still, it might mean chanting mantras or worshipping a deity Eight Limbs of Yoga • Yama (moral discipline) • Niyama (observances) • Asana (physical postures) • Pranayama (breathing techniques) • Pratyahara (sense withdrawal) • Dharana (concentration) • Dhyana (meditation or absorption) • Samadhi (enlightenment or bliss) These eight limbs are a systematic approach help in calming the mind & finding liberation from suffering. The final three stages, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi are collectively referred to as ‘Samyama’ (integration) since they are considered to be inextricably linked. 4.2.1 Yama The word, ‘Yama’, originally meant "bridle" or "rein" and it refers to the restraining nature of the Yamas. Yama is a duty or observance recommended by yogic philosophy and teaching as part of the eight-limbed path of yoga. The Yama yoga are the practices that are considered to be outer observances. They are considered to be a valuable and highly relevant guide to help yogis live an ethical life. Practicing the Yamas is said to give the yogi the opportunity to live in a way that is healthier and more peaceful. They can improve relationships with others, strengthen character and help the yogi progress on his/her spiritual path. Yamas are also believed to reduce or even prevent the accumulation of bad karma, which can be gathered when one lives without awareness or honesty. The five Yamas of Yoga are: Ahimsa: Ahimsa is the practice of non-violence, which includes physical, mental, and emotional violence towards others and the self. Compassion to be an excellent tool to foster non-violence. Compassion is the ability to accept events as they are with an open and loving heart. It is a letting go of reacting to a situation in a conditional & negative way and replaces those thoughts or feelings with kindness, acceptance, and love. Satya (truthfulness): Satya helps a person to live and speak our truth at all times. Walking the path of truth is a hard one, especially while respecting Patanjali’s first Yama, Ahimsa. Since Ahimsa must be practiced first, we must be careful to not speak a truth if we know it will cause harm to another. Living in your truth not only creates respect, honour, and integrity but also provides the vision to clearly see the higher truths of the yogic path. Asteya (non-stealing): Asteya can be defined as not taking what is not freely given. While this may on the surface seem easy to accomplish, but this Yama can be quite challenging to practice. On a personal level the practice of Asteya entails not committing theft physically and/or not causing or approving of anyone else doing so–in mind, word, or action. On the level of society, Asteya would be in opposition to exploitation, social injustice, and oppression. While not easy, practicing Asteya encourages generosity and overcomes Lobha (greed). Brahamcharya (continence): Brahamcharya states that when we have control over our physical impulses of excess, we attain knowledge, vigor, and increased energy. To break the bonds that attach us to our excesses and addictions, we need both courage and will. And each time we overcome these impulses of excess we become stronger, healthier and wiser. One of the main goals of yoga is to create and maintain balance. And the simplest method for achieving balance is by practicing Brahmacharya, creating moderation in all of our activities. Practicing moderation is a way of conserving our energy, which can then be applied for higher spiritual purposes. Aparigraha (non-coveting): Aparigraha urges us to let go of everything that we do not need, possessing only as much as necessary. The yogis tell us that worldly objects cannot be possessed at all, as they are all subject to change and will be ultimately destroyed. When we become greedy and covetous, we lose the ability to see our one eternal possession, the Atman, our true Self. And when we cling to what we have we lo se the ability to be open to receive what we need. 4.2.2 Niyama The Niyama are constructive tools for cultivating happiness and self-confidence; the opportunities to practice them arise every day. There are five Niyama that should be practiced every day. Self-purification (Shaucha): The first niyama, Shaucha, means “purification; cleanliness.” It includes a number of techniques of cleaning the body as well as the mind, and it has even been called the aim of the entire system of yoga. Shaucha is not only the foundation for bodily health, it is also the doorway to deeper and more tranquil states of meditation. Contentment (Santosha): The word Santosha means “contentment” as well as “delight, happiness, joy.” It comes from an experience of acceptance—of life, of ourselves, and of whatever life has brought us. When we are content, we are happy. Self-discipline (Tapas): The literal definition of tapas is “heat,”. In this case the heat that builds during periods of determined effort. Tapas accompanies any discipline that is willingly and gladly accepted in order to bring about a change of some kind—whether it be improved health, a new habit, better concentration, or a different direction in life. Tapas focuses energy, creates fervor, and increases strength and confidence. The practice of asanas is a form of tapas for the body; meditation is a tapas that purifies and focuses the mind. Self-study (Svadhyaya): Svadhyaya means, literally, “to recollect (to remember, to contemplate, to meditate on) the Self.” It is the effort to know the Self that shines as the innermost core of your being. Self-surrender (Ishvara Pranidhana): Pranidhana means “to surrender” and ‘Ishvara’ refers to allpervading consciousness. Together, these words may be translated as “trustful surrender to God,” the last and most important of the Niyama, and perhaps the most difficult for students to embrace. This niyama is not a process of defeat or of mindlessly submitting to another’s will. It is the act of giving ourselves to a higher purpose. 4.2.3 Asana The word asana has been derived from the Sanskrit word for 'seat'. An asana is a posture, which can either be in the form of traditional hatha yoga or for modern yoga. While many of the oldest mentioned asanas are in a seated postures for meditation, asanas may be standing, seated, armbalances, twists, inversions, forward bends, backbends, or reclining in prone or supine positions. The asanas have been given a variety of English names by competing schools of yoga. Traditional there are 84 asanas, however, different texts identify different selections, sometimes listing their names without describing them. Some names have been given to different asanas over the centuries, and some asanas have been known by a variety of names, making tracing and the assignment of dates difficult. For example, the name ‘Muktasana’ is now given to a variant of ‘Siddhasana’. 4.2.4 Pranayama The word ‘Pranayama’ has been derived from two words- ‘prana’ meaning life force or breath sustaining the body; and ‘ayama’ which means ‘to extend or draw out’. Together two mean breath extension or control. Pranayama is a Sanskrit word to describe yoga breathing exercises that have the ability to quickly increase our energy, release stress, improve our mental clarity, and improve our physical health. More recently the term ‘breathwork’ is being used in the western world to describe these breathing exercises or pranayama. Example: ‘Bhastrika pranayama’, ‘Bhramari pranayama’, and ‘Nadi Shodhan pranayama’ (alternate nostril breathing) What is Prana? The ancient Indian system of yoga identifies ‘prana’ as the universal life force or energy which distinguishes the living from the dead. Prana is the vital energy needed by our physical and subtle layers, without which our body would perish. Prana creates an aura around the body. It flows through thousands of subtle energy channels called ‘nadis’ and energy centres called ‘chakras. The quantity & quality of prana and the way it flows through the nadis and chakras determines one’s state of mind. If the prana level is high and its flow is continuous, smooth, and steady, the mind remains calm, positive, and enthusiastic. If practiced correctly, under the right supervision, pranayama brings harmony between the body, mind and spirit, making one physically, mentally and spiritually strong. Benefits of Pranayama The key to healthy and happy living may lie in the right way of breathing. When we control our breath, it brings us to the present moment, increases our self-awareness, and brings a sense of calm. Pranayama goes a step further than a simple awareness of the breath, using specific techniques to bring us numerous benefits on the mental, emotional and physical levels. • • • • • • Calms the mind, reducing worries and anxieties Improves focus and attention, removing brain fog Increases energy, bringing enthusiasm and positivity Boosts the immune system Rejuvenates the body and mind May even slow down the aging process 4.2.5 Partyahara Pratyahara yoga is the fifth limb of yoga and it is a powerful way to master your mind, cultivate inner peace, and boost your focus and concentration. The term “pratyahara” is composed of two Sanskrit words, ‘Prati’ and ‘Ahara’. ‘Ahara’ means ‘food’, or ‘anything we take into ourselves from the outside’. ‘Prati’ is a preposition meaning ‘against’ or ‘away’. ‘Pratyahara’ means ‘control of Ahara,’ or ‘gaining mastery over external influences’. Pratyahara is twofold. It involves withdrawal from wrong food, wrong impressions, and wrong associations, while simultaneously opening up to right food, right impressions, and right associations. We cannot control our mental impressions without right diet and right relationships, but pratyahara’s primary importance lies in withdrawal from or control of sensory impressions, which frees the mind to move within. In yogic thought, there are three levels of ‘Ahara’ or food. • The first of ahara: is physical food that brings in the five elements necessary to nourish the body—earth, water, fire, air, and ether. • The second level of ahara: is impressions, which bring in the subtle substances necessary to nourish the mind—the sensations of sound, touch, sight, taste, and smell that constitute the subtle elements: sound/ether, touch/air, sight/fire, taste/water, and smell/earth. • The third level of ahara: is our associations, the people we hold at heart level who serve to nourish the soul and affect us with the gunas of sattva, rajas, and tamas (the prime qualities of harmony, distraction, or inertia). Pratyahara practices lead to a profound state of relaxation, expanded self-awareness, and inner stability. They help a person to master both the body and the mind. The practice of pratyahara is considered to be an important bridge between the external focus of the previous limbs of yoga and the internal focus of the subsequent limbs 4.2.6 Dharna Dharana is a Sanskrit word which means "concentration." Dharana is the sixth of the Eight Limbs of Yoga as described by Patanjali in the Yoga Sutras. It refers to concentration of the mind. Dharana is about fixing the mind to one specific point. This could be something internal, like part of the body or a chakra, or something external like a picture, statue or another object. The purpose of performing dharna is to quiet the mind with this total concentration. Dharana is an important step on our way to the next step-‘Dhyana meditation’. We should be able to concentrate the mind before we can move further. Although the last three steps on the eightfold path, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi are all very interconnected. These three last steps represent the internal yoga, the activities of the mind, and they are independent from the physical senses. Benefits of Dharna • When we practice Dharana, the mind gets peaceful and we can strengthen the mind by focusing on one area and practicing control of the mind. Dharana is one way we can practice this control. • When you have been practicing Dharana, general concentration in different areas of life becomes easier. • Practicing Dharana helps to focus and quiet the mind on our way to meditation. • Practicing Dharana helps us to become more aware of our mind throughout the day. Especially when we are experiencing strong emotions in life, Dharana can help to balance these feelings and we can find a place of rest. Four tools to practice Dharna 1. Mantra practices: A mantra-based mediation practice is optimal to create focus. Under this method, we should repeat a mantra or a set of mantras. This practice helps to hold the mind still. 2. Visual mantra meditation: Visual meditation such as focusing on a single candle flame can enhance single pointed awareness. This practice helps to create improved awareness and focus 3. Visualization: Visualization is a great skill for manifesting desires. The reason why most people have difficulty manifesting the objects of their desire is that they are looking at the obstacles in front of them rather than having a clear, focused picture of the outcome. Visualize daily your desired outcome. Keeping a vision board is a concrete way of having pictures in front of you, at all times, to remind you that perceived obstacles are mere distractions. 4. Turn off your phone and other devices, and set a timer 4.2.7 Dhayana Dhyana is the 7th limb of yoga, and the word dhyana comes from the Sanskrit word ‘dhyai’, which means "to think of or meditation." Dhyana involves concentration and meditation on a point of focus with the intention of knowing the truth about it. This deeper concentration of the mind is the instrument of self-knowledge where one can separate illusion from reality, and eventually, reach the ultimate goal of yoga: samadhi (bliss, or union with the source). Dhyana is a refined meditative practice that requires deep mental concentration. Dhyana is explained in the ‘Yoga Sutras of Maharishi Patanjali’ as constant and effortless flow of awareness a point, object or a centre. Dhyana leads to Samadhi or the superconscious state (the 8th Stage of Ashtanga Yoga). In the 8-fold path of yoga, Dhyana is considered among the internal limbs of yoga (along with Dharana and Samadhi). The internal limbs of yoga are part of Raja Yoga or the royal path to liberation. Dhyana can be translated as a continuous, uninterrupted flow of attention towards the object of meditation. Meditation starts with concentration. When the concentration becomes continuous over a period of time, the effort drops off. This effortless, one pointed awareness of the object of meditation is Dhyana. If concentration is about focusing, then meditation is about de-focusing; yet maintaining a complete awareness of the object of meditation. This is achieved by developing the art of relaxation while keeping awareness of the object of meditation. Benefits of Dhayana or meditation in yoga: • Dhyana leads a person to higher state of Samadhi in progressive stages. • Dhayana removes agitation of the mind and creates calmness and peace inside • Practice of Dhayana improves memory and attention • Dhayana brings forth our hidden activity. Meditation can activate many of the hidden centres to bring out the hidden abilities and creative skills • Regular practice of Dharna leads to good physical health and sense of well-being • Dhayana can help control our negative thoughts • Practice of Dhayana creates a harmonious society, free from negative thoughts and feelings 4.2.8 Samadhi Samadhi is the eighth and final step on the path of yoga, as defined by Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. The term is derived from several Sanskrit roots; ‘sam’ meaning ‘together’ or ‘completely’, ‘a’ meaning ‘toward’ and ‘dhe’, meaning ‘put’. When the state of meditation becomes excellence and deeper it is called samadhi. The state of samadhi begins when the mind becomes steady or concentrated and extremely calm through meditation. If you want to become the happiest, most peaceful, most joyful person in the world, you have to be in Samadhi. This is the purpose of samadhi – to provide the ultimate bliss to a person. It is a state in which individual and universal consciousness unite. There are 2 types of samadhi according to Maharishi Patanjali: • Savikalpa Samadhi, which is also known as Sampragyaat Samadhi • Nirvikalpa Samadhi, which is also known as Asampragyaat Samadhi Samadhi is a blissful form of total meditative absorption, reached once the practitioner has moved through the preliminary steps on Patanjali’s eightfold path. The spiritual significance of Samadhi is profound, since it encompasses self-realization and symbolizes the ultimate connection with the Divine.