Resreach on Literacy
Abstract
With the many strides that have been made in education locally, there still lingers a challenge with literacy. It is evident from the basic school level (as a lack of phonemic awareness), exacerbated with promotion to each grade and manifests up to secondary school. With literacy as the requirement for learning across the subject areas, the effects of illiteracy are too grave to neglect it. From the days prior to our Independence, education was associated with the minority upper class. Today, children of the poor are still susceptible to non-literacy because of the illiteracy they are exposed to and inadequate resources. Schools do little to effectively address the problem by allowing struggling students to remain in mainstream classes. Illiteracy is perpetuated because of the lack of an effective learning environment and quality familial support. Two students that were struggling in classes because of their literacy challenge were selected for an intervention to improve their literacy level, through specialized instruction. Their teachers, parents, the literacy specialist and principal were interviewed. The findings revealed that removing struggling students from mainstream classes to receive special literacy instruction improves not just their literacy level, but also self-esteem and self-efficacy. Also, the genuine care of a teacher fosters better relationships with students and motivates them to achieve. Children that are reading below accepted grade level must not be admitted to any mainstream class regardless of the size of the special literacy class. Parental involvement must also be mandatory to achieve collaboration with the teacher.
Key words: literacy, illiteracy, poverty, grade four, intervention strategies.
CHAPTER ONE
The Background
According to the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) Director General, Irina Bokova, in a message addressing International Literacy Day 2012, the role of literacy is pivotal in personal, societal and national development, noting that:
“It transforms the lives of people, allowing them to make informed choices and empowering individuals to become agents of change. Literacy is at the heart of basic education for all and essential for poverty eradication, gender equality, maternal health, child mortality reduction, sustainable development, peace and democracy.” (UNESCO Institute for Statistics n.d.)
The UNESCO further stated that literacy is “a human right and the foundation of all education and lifelong learning.” (UNESCO Institute for Statistics n.d.). This denotes the importance of literacy, and shows that where absent, the effects can be devastating personally and nationally. The fact that literacy is deemed a human right shows the necessity and enhances its importance. Persons who are functionally illiterate may well experience difficulty manoeuvring certain basic tasks as a visit to the doctor, driving or conducting transactions at a financial institution independently. Normally these simple tasks should not require the presence of someone else who is able to read and write, however, where reading signs and instructions and completing forms are required, the illiterate person may opt to take along a literate partner.
Bokova further demonstrated the relationship between literacy and peace, stating that "Amidst political upheaval and escalating violence in many parts of the world, literacy must be a priority in the peace-building agenda of all nations.” (UNESCO Institute for Statistics n.d.) Indeed having a fully literate, or almost fully literate citizenry, is costly, especially in a third world country like ours, however, to say it is necessary is an understatement. As a country, we must equally consider the even more expensive cost of illiteracy. The Ministry of Education has outlined its Vision for the child in the Revised Primary Curriculum Guide- “the child completing primary school should be functionally literate and numerate, demonstrating a positive self concept” (Ministry of Education, 1999). Implicit in this statement is that one of the aims of the Ministry is to produce students who are functionally literate and numerate. “Every Child can learn, every child must learn”, the mantra of the Ministry of Education, denotes their main aim and purpose to the students it serves.
Notwithstanding this mantra, there is a concern for illiteracy rates islandwide. Locally, the Ministry of Education’s Grade Four Literacy Test, hereon the Test, is used to ascertain literacy levels of grade four students in public, private and special institutions. The Test has 3 components which assess students’ word recognition, reading comprehension and writing skills; subscribing to international standards of literacy appropriate for that grade level. There are three levels which are used to assess literacy: Mastery, almost mastery and non-mastery. Mastery means the student has mastered the three skill areas and is considered literate. Almost mastery means the student has mastered one or two of the three skills and is deemed close to being literate while at the non mastery level, the student has not mastered any of the three skills and is deemed non literate. Students who do not attain mastery at the first sitting have three other opportunities to resit the test and achieve mastery before leaving primary school as the Test is administered in June and December each year. First time sitters take the test in June, while the resitters take the test in December of that same year, and if necessary, again in June of the following year (Bromfield 2013). Students are promoted to the other grade, however to sit the Grade Six Achievement Test, they must attain mastery in the Test.
In an article in the Jamaica Observer, then Minister of Education Andrew Holness, made reference to grade four literacy levels for 2010, (being just under 70%), noting the significance of literacy rates as a predictor of socio-economic growth. While estimating the pervasiveness of illiteracy at approximately 23% for said year, he noted that, in the event a student fails the Test at their first sitting in grade four, they would still be in the primary school system for another 2 years for remedial literacy support, before exiting. More recently, former Education Minister Reverend Ronald Thwaites in a Gleaner article estimates that approximately 15% of test takers have special needs, this will impede our propensity to achieve full literacy. These students must be given specialized attention for full literacy to transform from a dream to reality.
According to the Ministry of Education’s Statistics Division’s Publication on Education Statistics, for the academic year 2011/2012, approximately 74% of students from public and private institutions, that were first time sitters, mastered the three subsets. Nineteen percent (19%) almost mastered the subsets or were considered close to being literate, while 7% mastered none of the subsets (non mastery) or were considered non literate. Of the first time test takers that achieved mastery, 55% were females and 45% males. Of the students that sat the Test from public institutions, approximately 72% achieved mastery, 20% almost mastery and 8% non mastery. Of the 72% that achieved mastery, 56% were females. Private schools’ performance exceeded that of their public counterparts considerably. Ninety four per cent (94%) of test takers achieved mastery, 5.5% achieved almost mastery and 0.5% non mastery. There was no gender difference in the performance of males and females in preparatory schools, of those achieving mastery. These statistics paint the general picture of the type of learning that occurs in government run primary schools. Students from preparatory schools had higher literacy levels than students from public primary schools. For the students achieving mastery, females outperformed males in public schools, while in private schools, there was no gender difference in performance. This then begs a few questions. It is known that the dynamics of private schools normally allow for better test results, due to a lower teacher: student ratio, better resources, facilities and financial support, but is this the real reason for the disparity in literacy levels? Does classroom aesthetics play any role in literacy attainment? Does teaching methodology and teacher qualification play a more integral role in becoming literate than a small teacher: pupil ratio, better resources, facilities and financial support? Does a child’s natural intelligence play a more integral role in determining his ability to become literate than family support or appropriate teaching methods and adequate practice? This study debunked the most integral factors in attaining literacy.
The Setting
Although each individual learns in a different way, and at a different pace, the fact remains that every child has the capacity or capability of learning, and by extension, every child has the ability to become literate, providing the conditions are conducive. The school has consistently secured literacy rates of over sixty percent (60%) and the past four years have been no different. For the academic year 2009/ 2010, the school attained 64% mastery, while in 2011, 85% percent mastery was achieved. In recent history, the highest literacy rates for the school were recorded in 2012 (94%), while it fell considerably in 2013 (77%), to resemble national averages.
Being a past student of the school under study and having completed practicum there, I am brought back to occurrences of over twenty years ago. During my tenure, classes were streamed according to students’ ability and the strongest students were placed in one class, the less strong in another class, and the least strong in a class matching their competencies. As a member of the strongest class, I remember sitting around the table in the middle of the classroom, reserved for students considered the ‘brightest’. While we enjoyed this elite status of being considered among the brightest, we somehow knew that slower students were viewed differently from us. Today, from the standpoint of a practitioner, I am now objectively able to assess what I experienced, as well as the experiences of the slower set of students. These students, sometimes referred to as “dunce”, most often do not attend extra lessons and do not have sufficient or quality support at home, automatically placing them at an added disadvantage. At a shift school where the teaching- learning hours are less than at a non shift school, it is paramount that students attend extra lessons, and even more so for slow students that need additional attention and practice. The placement of students according to ability facilitated student segregation, where friendships were formed with students of similar ability, because of physical proximity. This lead to a culture in the school where friendships were formed with students of similar ability, thus aiding a non transference of knowledge from faster to slower students, (unless a deliberate attempt is made by the teacher during activities to group students in this way). It was even observed at lunch time, as well as during class activities, that the faster students mingled with students of similar intelligence and the opposite holds true. These dynamics, from the standpoint of a practitioner at the school, provided paramount insights while simultaneously raising concerns as to the reason the streaming has persisted over the years. Some of the reasons illiteracy has persisted at this school were found in these dynamics.
Literacy is not merely word recognition or word calling, but an acquired skill to decode material for meaning (interpreting) and later use. Snow, Burns and Griffin (1998, p. 42) have defined literacy as “the use of products and principles of the writing system to get at the meaning of written text”. While a universal definition of literacy has not been established, there are key components that are evident in most accepted definitions. Reading, writing and interpreting are essential elements of literacy. The meaning of the term literacy varies across cultures, countries and regions. It has also changed over time, evolving from simply the ability to read and write to a more comprehensive ability to decode and aptly use information. The UNICEF has defined functional literacy as the skills (reading, writing and numeracy) enabling a person to function in and contribute to society (UNESCO, 2006). The Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, similarly defined literacy as being able to read and write text and numbers, and to use this ability to learn further and to meet basic needs (UNESCO, 2006). For the purpose of this research, literacy is an acquired skill of reading and writing text and numbers as well as being able to make sense of and later use the information gathered. Non literacy then is the inability to make sense of and apply written and oral information (numbers and text). The benchmark test for assessing literacy in this study is the response to intervention (see Appendix E). It is assumed that, with the exception of persons with a disability or learning difficulty, children are not born with an innate ability that predisposes them to reading well. The quality of the nurturing environment the child is exposed to is fundamental in his ability to become literate. The nurturing environment encapsulates the learning environment (to include teaching methods and activities, and class size) as well as the support at home. For this report, methodology is used to mean the teaching practices, strategies, methods and activities used in a teaching session at the school. Another key phenomenon that impacts a child’s propensity to become literate is the quality of support he has at home. According to Slaughter and May (2012), in a research conducted in England assessing the effect of family support on literacy, the quality of the home environment plays a more significant role in a child’s inclination to read than family income or social status. Familial support in this study is used to mean support children receive at home, be it from parent, caregiver, sibling or other relative or non relative at the child’s home. Consequently, the type of home environment a child comes from largely, but not solely, determines the activities he engages in at home. In some settings, children are not exposed to written material, outside of what is requisite for school, while in others, the environment is print rich and encourages reading. Depending on the setting the child is exposed to, reading can be self- initiated if it is deemed enticing and enticing reading material is available. Exposure then, in the context of this report, considers the extent to which the child is has access to and interacts with reading material outside the classroom, and for non- school purposes. These variables provide significant insight into literacy acquisition.
The Problem
Attaining Literacy
The Dyslexia Association of Singapore (2012) has identified indicators of literacy difficulties. They have noted that persons with such difficulties experience common errors in reading and spelling. Among the difficulties associated with reading and spelling were: confusing letters e.g. b for d; reversing letter sequences e.g. "was" for "saw"; making anagrams of words e.g. "tired" for "tried", mixing up words e.g. "there", "that"; and omitting or adds letters in words e.g. "lip" for "limp". While completing practicum in a grade four class at a prominent primary school in Portmore St. Catherine, I realized that some students displayed these symptoms and more. During whole class reading, these students would lag behind and repeat what the other students read, not really participating in the reading exercise. When they were asked to read independently, they would take a very long time, and would mispronounce words, or not call any words at all, demonstrating obvious inability, frustration and stress. These students were less likely to participate in class activities. Among the causes of students not being able to read, according to Shanker and Ekwall (1998, p.3), are “large class sizes and multiple demands on the time of classroom teachers”, realities which I observed and experienced throughout the practicum experience. The teacher has to write on the board, teach lessons, mark students’ books (more than 40), prepare for the next lesson, while maintaining class control and dealing with children’s issues (emotional and psychosocial) as they arise. Persons deemed non literate are more susceptible to social and psychological ills which are not normally experienced by the literate. UNESCO (2006) as cited in Martinez and Fernandez (2010), notes that the non literate person struggles with social recognition, experiences low self esteem, little autonomy and critical thinking skills. This susceptibility to emotional distress places added strain on such students, associating negativity with the education process.
At the beginning of the semester, the weakest students were administered a reading test and the results from the test determined whether they remained in that class or were sent to a special class, with a reading specialist. I enquired of the grade supervisor which students had the greatest challenge with literacy and asked permission to tutor them separately, two such students were identified. In the first session students were told to sound the letters of the alphabet to assess their level of phonemic awareness. During this exercise I realized that one student in particular struggled with letter sounds, which is pivotal in literacy acquisition. She was unable to sound all the letters of the alphabet. For me this was alarming because children should know how to read from grade 1. The school uses the Informal Diagnostic Reading Inventory, an assessment tool by the Ministry of Education. This inventory assesses the grade level at which a child reads. This should determine the strategies used that will enable him to read at the appropriate grade level. Based on the results from this Inventory, students are sent to a class with the literacy specialist. Both students under study were sent to the reading class however, less than a week later, they were both sent back to their mainstream class. This research opted to use students that were not in the special literacy class but in a mainstream class so as to design a strategy that would be most useful to teachers and students in mainstream classes, which comprises the majority.
Snow, Burns & Griffin (1998) as cited in Foorman and Torgesen (2001) have outlined conditions conducive to the acquisition of literacy skills in the classroom. These are centred around activities which promote the development of the following skills: phonemic awareness and decoding skills, text processing, constructing meaning, word recognition, spelling, vocabulary and writing skills. Phonemic awareness is the ability to identify and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. The extent to which activities that facilitate the development of these skills is practiced and observed at the focal school is integral. The school operates on shifts, each being 5 hours in duration. Lunch is for a half hour and sweeping of the classroom begins 15 minutes before the end of each shift. This means that in essence, only 4 hours are allowed for teaching and learning. Language Arts and Mathematics are done everyday and Thursday is designated for Literacy and Numeracy Skills. Illiteracy persists due to the lack of adequate and appropriate teaching methods and learning environment and lack of quality familial support, not because of learner inability. Literacy nurturing activities, appropriate class sizes and quality family support contribute more to literacy attainment than financial resources and students’ level of intelligence.
Purpose of Study
This study explored grade four students’ struggle with literacy and the reasons for this at a primary school in Portmore. It also examined a combination of reading strategies on these students’ literacy struggle.
Research Questions
1. What are the psychosocial experiences of students who struggle with literacy?
2. What do stakeholders believe are the contributing factors to non literacy at the focal primary school?
3. What are the emerging outcomes from the reading intervention strategies on students who struggle with literacy in the focal school?
Definitions of Other Terms
Literacy struggle- in this study, this term refers to the psychosocial experiences of students who are non readers at a particular primary school; and how they are played out in learning to read.
Combination of reading strategies- the neurological- impress method (NIM) Heckleman, echo reading, word identification on flash cards, guided oral reading and alternating reading out loud (teacher and students) and activities building phonemic awareness (syllabication, identifying rhymes, beginning and ending sounds ). The NIM included sessions where I sat with the students and we read together. My reading pace was reduced to match theirs and I pointed on each word as we read together. As the students’ vocabulary and word recognition was built, more information was introduced. With echo reading, students were read to at first and then told to repeat/ reread what was read before, sentence by sentence.
Stakeholders- this term is limited to the students, parents and past and present teachers of the students under study.
Factors- these are quality of the parent-child relationship (if parents: read with/ to children, tell stories, teach songs), the education level of the parent, level of poverty, teacher qualification, methodology and philosophy, school culture and resources, teacher: pupil ratio, child nutrition, home environment.
Emerging outcomes- gradual observable sign of change and progress.
The research was conducted under the following assumptions: that there is some level of learning disability present in both student participants, however it is not pronounced enough to adversely affect the outcomes severely. That the scores of the student participants on the intervention would signify the scores that they will obtain on the Test, is another assumption made by the researcher.
Delimitations
The researcher was careful to select a public school on shift and also to select grade four students that have never sat the Test. It was also the objective of the researcher was to identify students in mainstream classes, not in specialized classes.
Limitations
The benchmark test only assesses print (text) literacy, any other form of literacy is not considered. Also, due to time constraints the implementation of the intervention was not short in duration and only one school was used. Another factor that has inhibited the scope of this research paper is the lack of proper assessment of the quality of student participants’ early childhood experience/ medical history. The inability to formally assess student participants for learning disorders due the length of time it would take to see a specialist at the MICO Care Centre, hampered the researcher’s ability to decipher the reasons for illiteracy where there is no learning disorder or difficulty.
CHAPTER TWO
This chapter explores some discourses surrounding literacy regionally as well as internationally. There are differing views on the definition of literacy, causes, risk factors and consequences of illiteracy as well as current research on literacy will also be explored.
Profile of Students
Both subjects hail from the parish of St. Catherine and are enrolled in Grade four at the same shift primary school in St. Catherine. They were both nine years old and while they had a few things in common, they were still very different. The male subject was nine years old and was from an extended family. His mother worked at a wholesale and his father worked overseas for half of the year. Subject A’s household consisted of his mother, aunt, sister and brothers. The female subject on the other hand lived with her mother and baby brother. She would visit her father and his family on weekends and holidays.
Both subjects have attended the school from the first grade to their current grade. During this period, the performance of the female subject remained stable with each grade promotion, while the performance of the male subject was stable until it decreased somewhat when more difficult work came into play. This started between grades three and four.
Subject A was a visual/ tactile leaner. He enjoyed the hands- on approach that Mathematics provided. The regular ‘chalk and talk’ method was not the most effective pedagogy for his learning needs. His attention span was very small and from observations, if he was not being actively engaged, would become somewhat disinterested and disengaged. Jermaine’s pace was slower than the rest of this class and his needs were also different. He required specialized instruction that attended to his tactile need and the pace at which he grasped information.
For Subject B, whenever she was engaged visually/ kinesthetically, her understanding improved. She was more interested in Language Arts and Science than the male subject, and enjoyed activities that engaged more than just her hearing. One distinct need that was obvious was that the pace at which she learned was slower than the other students and even the other subject in this study.
Important to note is the fact that none of the parents reported any illnesses/ abnormalities during their pregnancy.
Historical Overview and definitions
Among the similarities found among Caribbean states, as identified by Lambert (2010) is that our education systems emanated from trust funds or church organizations and were made official in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. He further noted that, while historically the official languages of this region were European in descent, the mother tongue, which is the language of the masses, accounted for more than ninety per cent (90%) of the language used and was not of European descent. This resultantly created a divide on the basis of language between the elite minority and the common majority. Similarly, in reference to the language situation in the West Indies, in that day, Craig (1969) notes conclusions of research conducted within that period. Of it he notes, “these studies show that the natural speech of West Indian children differs so much from the kind of English incorrectly assumed to be their ‘mother tongue’ that traditional methods of teaching English are inappropriate” (Craig 1969 p. 3), and went further to mention suggestions of teaching standard English as a foreign language. This seems to mirror the language situation of this day where innumerable students are adept in the use of the mother tongue, but experience difficulties using the official language. This is particularly true of students in primary schools.
Another similarity noted was that literacy through education was seen as the means to the end of climbing the socioeconomic ladder for the region (Lambert 2010). This regional historical context frames the beginnings of our education system locally, characteristics of which have persisted until today. Then, education, and by extension, literacy was seen as our main stay to achieve economically, aligned with the suppositions of the UNESCO today. Denoting the pivotal place literacy holds in securing an economically safe future, the UNESCO themed International Literacy Day 2014 “Literacy and Sustainable Development”. This symbolizes the crucial function of literacy in securing and maintaining socioeconomic and environmental gains. From this we can deduce that sustainability is an attribute of literacy or at least both are intimately related. Fundamentally, literacy must be preserved for successive generations to benefit from; and the advances made through literacy today should result in advances in technology, science, education and other sectors sufficient to be preserved for subsequent generations.
The UNESCO has categorized literacy using 4 headings, namely as: 1. a set of skills; 2. as applied, as practiced and situated; 3. as a learning process; and 4. as text (UNESCO, 2006). In essence, not only is it the ability to read and write, but the ability to apply what we have read and also considers the social setting in which literacy is acquired and used. By the UNESCO’s definition, literacy is also viewed as a process; this aspect considers the procedures and actions involved in acquiring knowledge, the means, not just the end. Literacy may be acquired in numerous ways, formally within the confines of an institution, through apprenticeship, through on the job training or repeated exposure or interaction (experience). Belanger, (n.d) as cited in Jarvis 2009, speak of the plural reality of literacy depending on the domain or cultural context in which it is being referred. The researcher posits that “Literacy is, indeed, determined by the various cultural, political, and economic contexts of the community in which it is developed” Belanger (n.d.) as cited in Jarvis (2009, p.81). Noting further that “Media literacy, computer literacy, health literacy, and environment literacy are all new literacies (Belanger as cited in Jarvis 2009 p. 81). The concept of meta literacy is also of importance- the true test of literacy, is being able to utilize knowledge in one area in another area, not merely the knowledge, but application of it rather (Belanger, as cited in Jarvis, (2009). This raises inquiry into persons considered ‘street smart’ who may not necessarily be ‘book smart’; likewise persons possessing practical but not theoretical knowledge. Does this then mean that such persons are totally illiterate and by what standard? Our Ministry of Education, as aforementioned, operates with the vision that ‘Every Child can Learn, Every Child Must Learn’, implied by this is the fact that regardless of the means used, regardless of the content being learnt, regardless of the instructor and the context in which it occurs, every child possesses an innate ability to learn something, regardless of what that ‘thing’ is, regardless of how technical or simplistic in nature. This also means that every child can become literate in some field or some area of interest.
What does it mean to be literate?
There are different types of Literacies – which are specific to a particular field or area - e.g. computer literacy. So one who is computer literate, possesses the skills and knowledge and knows how to apply this knowledge of computers, however, this person may not be knowledgeable in Mathematics, Science or another subject area. Such persons may or may not possess academic certification attesting to their computer ‘literacy’, however, they have a natural appreciation and understanding of computers exacerbated by interacting with this device over time. The reverse may also hold true where someone certified in computer use may experience difficulty with the practical application of this knowledge when interacting with the device. In this case, which individual is deemed literate depends on the definition or standard being used to assess their literacy. Locally, there has been debate over the quality of students from two prominent universities- the University of the West Indies and the University of Technology. The debate has been centred around the fact that the former university prepares graduates theoretically, while the latter provides extensive practical experience to its students. Is the theoretical (which is often accompanied by certification) given precedence over the practical? Is there a holistic definition of the term literacy?
“Literacy embodies a complex set of competencies including (but not confined to) understanding the symbol systems of a language, writing, oral expression, critical thinking, digital acumen, and problem solving. Literacy is contextually situated, dynamic, and engages lifelong processes. It is a vehicle for personal achievement and for social and political change in national, regional and global cultures. (CETT, Framework 2009 as cited in Lambert 2010.)
This definition as supplied by the Centre of Excellence in Teacher Training shows that there is a cognitive, written and verbal component of literacy. Bryans (1998) as cited in Lambert (2010) described our regional Literacy situation precisely by highlighting the integral relationship among literacy, language and culture. She noted that teachers’ notions of this interchange were essential in alleviating our Literacy challenges. None of the component parts is independent of the other. Evidently, reading is not synonymous to literacy, but is in fact one vital element in the process of acquiring literacy. Pointing to the necessity of literacy in especially the upper levels of primary school, Lubliner (2004) clearly states that “reading is the vehicle for acquiring knowledge in the upper -grade classroom, a necessary precursor to completing academic tasks across the curriculum.” She asserts further that the inability of these upper grade children to read effectively begins or enhances their educational demise which will perpetuate if not intercepted. For adept readers, as proposed by Lubliner (2004), the reading process largely entails text comprehension while for beginning readers, the reading process focuses on decoding words and also text comprehension. The more fluent the reader in decoding, the more easily they will be able to understand what is being read. Obviously then, a student that has difficulty with decoding will have an even greater challenge understanding what has been read. Lubliner embarked on a study in which she identified three (3) students in her class as having significant challenges with reading and implemented a strategy to ameliorate these challenges. The strategy used to increase their decoding and comprehension skills was entrenched in the cognitive school of thought and seemed most appropriate for these students. It employed a technique in her intervention which she called “Self Generated, Main Idea Questioning”. In this technique, she read a passage to her struggling students and then encouraged them to ask questions about the passage read. This helped with having a purpose for reading and thereby utilised the two aspects of the reading process - decoding and comprehension. The intervention involved modelling, in which she would read the passage and then ‘think aloud’ the questioning to her literacy-challenged students. She used a questioning Cue Card organized around these ideas- think, build, summarize, question, ask. First, students were to think about what the author was saying in each sentence. They then had to organize the ideas for meaning. Having done this, they were to identify the main idea in the passage and then select a question to answer (who, what, when where, how, why) about this main idea and then finally ask that question and contemplate an answer. She began through modelling and encouraging students along until they were able to effectively manage on their own. This intervention worked well with her non-readers and among the successes was that students’ confidence had increased, in addition to their reading skills. The success reported was mainly due to the fact that the students were heavily involved in the process, were encouraged and supported and received requisite attention from the facilitator. The presence of these factors is paramount to literacy attainment for students that are struggling with literacy. It is also essential to note that this type of remedial strategy can be tweaked to become preventive and more importantly, the implementation rests in the hands of practitioners, with very little effort required by parents, school administration, the governing body or any other stakeholder.
Standard Jamaican English as a Foreign Language
Locally, the Bilingual Education Project was a pilot study undertaken by the Jamaican Language Unit Department of the University of the West Indies, Mona aimed at exploring the most effective methodology to employ bilingualism (the use of Jamaican Standard English and Jamaican Creole) instructionally in primary classrooms. The programme was initiated targeting students in grades one to four “determining the most effective means of encouraging full bilingualism for primary level students at the Grades 1 – 4 in Jamaican Creole (JC) and Standard Jamaican English (SJE).” The Project was embarked on in response to the challenges outlined in the Language Education Policy tabled by the Ministry of Education. As noted by Robinson (2014) while this programme’s implementers reported successes, especially among boys, its use within schools has been restricted by the government. Bilingualism may facilitate a literacy transition taking strugglers from where they are to where they should be and should not be discarded on account of this. Certainly with the mother tongue of most Jamaicans beings Creole, credence should be given to this method for it to be integrated into our classrooms. In a similar fashion to the way a foreign language (French, Spanish, Latin) is taught, Standard Jamaican English should also be taught. This includes word translation exercises from Creole to the standard. In our foreign language classes instruction is done completely or almost completely in the foreign language. On the contrary, instruction is largely done in the ‘mother tongue’ with gradual additions of words of the desired language. For instruction to be done in a foreign language for students adept only in the mother tongue will raise some concerns. Bilingualism may be used alongside other strategies to raise literacy levels in non readers.
Pre-Determinants
Within our country, it is known and accepted that students from preparatory schools tend to outperform students from public primary schools. While the views on the reasons for this disparity in performance are varied, it should be equally accepted that it is not that the students at preparatory schools are born more intelligent than those at primary schools. On the contrary, the environment created at home is a more potent determinant of how well a child reads, and by extension, performs in school. Clark and Picton (2012) conducted research through the National Literacy Trust among eight to sixteen year old students in the United Kingdom assessing the effect of family support on literacy. The findings of this report revealed that the quality of the home environment plays a more significant role in a child’s propensity to read than family income or social status. Herein lies a controversy, having a literacy stimulating home environment is not dependent on income or societal status, however, income determines status and both often times determine the activities that occur at home. Notwithstanding this relationship, there are always anomalies and exceptions to the rule since there are many instances in which students from poverty stricken backgrounds have defied the odds and have done exceptionally well academically. In the same study conducted in the United Kingdom, the majority of respondents (83%) in the survey reported that they receive some amount of encouragement to read from their mother, which is considerably greater than the proportion of participants that receive said encouragement from their male parent (63%). It may be that because females are more inclined to be expressive through language than males that they encourage their children to read more than males. The research also pointed out that receiving encouragement to read from a parent facilitates students seeing themselves as readers, enjoying reading, reading frequently and viewing reading positively. Almost half of participants who read above their grade level received a lot of encouragement to read from their mother, in comparison with their counterparts reading below grade level, where twenty nine per cent (29%) of them receive such encouragement from their male parent. While it is important to have reading support from either parents, it seems the female parent is more likely to offer this support and when it is offered, the results are tremendous. Most interesting is the conclusion of the researchers that “family support for literacy therefore does not require a high level of academic ability or substantial financial resources; simple, everyday actions such as encouraging children to read and being seen reading can contribute positively to young people’s reading attitudes and
behaviour” (Clark and Picton 2012 p. 6). Paradoxically, research conducted in the U.S. demonstrates that “language and preliteracy development has a profound effect on young children’s successful transition to school and, in particular, on their success in learning to read” (Dickinson and Tabors 2001; Whitehurst and Lonigan 1998 as cited in Wasik, Bond and Hindman 2006 p. 63). One significant factor which affects the quality of a child’s pre-literacy and language development is their socioeconomic status- derived from their parents or with those in whom they come in contact (Dickinson & Tabors, 2001; Strickland, 2001; Wells, 1986 as cited in Wasik et al 2006). Poverty stricken children are at a distinct disadvantage because language used by the adults they come in contact with may not be in conjunction with printed word and not aligned with their culture, lagging behind their wealthier counterparts (Snow et al., 1998; Wells, 1986 and Hart & Risley, 1995 as cited in Wasik et al, 2006). One researcher believed that the disadvantage imposed on the children of the less fortunate were because of “parents’ limited use of literacy skills and the absence of books in the home” (Wasik et al 2006, p. 64). This type of disparity in language between the upper and lower classes has always existed from the beginnings of our education system, however, what is alarming is that it has persisted until today.
There are numerous reasons students continue to experience difficulty with literacy, and often times, an amalgamation of factors are at work. Such factors as environmental, social, emotional, and natural intelligence impact students’ propensity to learn. Among these are: individual factors; factors in the home, social environment; factors in the school environment; factors of cultural and linguistic diversity (Jennings, Caldwell and Lerner 2006). Factors directly related to the individual are those which, despite having all the necessary interventions and support, still produce a difficulty with reading and literacy and have to do with brain functioning, not external factors.
External causes of illiteracy are found in the home, social and environmental settings and are manifest in different ways. Where poverty and instability in the home persist, there tends to be a negative impact on learning and literacy. Equally detrimental is the prevalence of violence and crime in the community in which a student lives. By no means is it implied that there are no exceptions, however, largely these phenomena adversely affect learning, and the cases in which they don’t are much fewer than the cases in which they do. These factors also predispose affected students to health and emotional risks. Improper nutrition and eating habits are often second nature to the poor and uneducated, which are requisite for normal brain functioning and learning.
Other Causes of Illiteracy
Within the walls of the schools also lie factors that promote reading difficulties. Such factors include the fact that some practitioners instead of teaching children to read, often read to them. This is also detrimental as, students who struggle with reading and poorly performing children read considerably less than students who do not have this struggle. These are the students who need the instruction in reading and practice with reading most, so where this is lacking, these students will consequently perform poorly in literacy and much all other subject areas. In a very similar way, students whose mother tongue is not English experience particular difficulty with reading. Students who are exposed to other Languages, especially at home, may well we able to function orally, however, they face a serious struggle understanding written English. In our society where our native language is Jamaican Creole, a similar situation exists. The other subject areas are in Standard Jamaican English, with which they may not have much exposure.
Inherent Risk Factors
Roth, Paul and Pierotti (2006) note some factors that predispose a child to literacy challenges. Children that experienced speech and language disorders in preschool were likely to experience difficulties reading and writing later in their schooling. Other factors, they contend, include physical or medical conditions (e.g., preterm birth requiring placement in a neonatal intensive care unit, chronic ear infections, fetal alcohol syndrome, cerebral palsy), developmental disorders (e.g., mental retardation, autism spectrum), poverty, home literacy environment, and family history of language or literacy disabilities. Many students with learning disabilities are in mainstream classes, where, sometimes, their learning needs are not fully met because of a variety of reasons. (Kirk and Kirk, 1976, pp. 255-256), as cited in Spafford and Grosser (1996, p. 5) defined learning disabilities as a disorder in, “not just language, speech, or reading, but also the associated communication skills requisite for socialization”. This then implies the psychosocial effect of being learning disabled, which, many times manifest as antisocial behaviours.
Among the early indicators of dyslexia, as identified by Spafford and Grosser (1996) are: delays in speech and language development; difficulties in reading, math, writing, and spelling,; difficulties in time and space concepts; difficulty copying work; disorganization in thinking through a problem, planning ahead and following directions; poor self image and self confidence; poor interaction with other students; excessively distractible; poor study habits and test performance; memory problems; hyperactivity, impulsivity, inattention and low tolerance. Often times these behaviours are assessed as mischievous, however, specialized care is the only solution in such cases.
Parental involvement
In a research conducted in the U.S. on the effect of direct parental involvement in the classroom on children’s emerging reading among kindergarteners, it was found that students whose parents volunteered (whether directly in classroom or indirectly at home) reported better signs of reading than students of non participant parents (Porter Decusati and Johnson 2004). In addition to this, the research revealed that children in general were not averse to the presence of their caretakers in the classroom and also that parents’ current reading practices with their children were linked to classroom participation and not their own early literacy experiences. (Porter Decusati and Johnson, 2004). Another noteworthy point unearthed by this research was the fact that the predisposition of the parents of ethnic minorities, low socioeconomic standing, and parents of children with special needs or extraneous circumstances (Porter Deusati and Johnson, 2004). Statement incomplete Hayes, (2006 p. 168) disclosed that the “most important period for literacy development is during the early childhood years from birth to 8 years, with regular exposure to books and stories being a crucial factor in learning to read.” Parents have a very fundamental role to play at this stage through the exposure they provide to their young children, the more familiar they are with words and stories, the easier the acquisition of literacy in subsequent years.
Quality of learning environment at school
Teacher quality
It has often been said that a student is only as good as his teacher, although the degree of truth in this statement is arguable. UNESCO’s Director General, Bokova, strongly affirms this statement stating that “A quality universal primary education will remain a distant dream for millions of children living in countries without enough trained teachers in classrooms” UNESCO 2014. Indeed, there are varying degrees of the presence of qualified teachers depending on the country, but irrespective of this, “Hiring and training new and already established teachers is fundamental to protecting children’s ability to learn in school.” (UNESCO 2014). Another paramount feature in literacy acquisition is the quality of pedagogy students are exposed to. Whether the environment is print-rich, encourages reading or incites interest in non readers is an attribute of the practices or strategies of the instructor or school. In a research ascertaining the relationship among a teacher’s level of qualification, her classroom practices and subsequent student performance among first graders, further credence is given to this proposition that teacher quality affects student learning (Connor, Son, Hyman and Morrison, 2005). Darling-Hammond, (2000); Darling-Hammond & Youngs, (2002); Nye, Konstantopoulos, & Hedges, (2004) as cited in Connor, Son, Hyman and Morrison (2005) purport that the ability of a teacher to teach her students effectively is one of the factors paramount to her students’ success in school. Notwithstanding this, there are “multiple sources of influence” on students’ success that are independent of the teacher and the school (Connor et al 2005 p. 344). These ‘sources of influence’ are not school derived and external to the teacher. There has been debate about teaching being an art and every artistic skill or talent must be developed to operate optimally. This inherent ability of the ‘born teacher’ must likewise be molded and professionally developed so as to enable this teacher to teach effectively. This is acquired through formal training. So whether innate or learnt, formal training and continuous, appropriately timed and paced up- training is essential for teaching success.
Teacher quality refers to the certification (credentials), education (knowledge about teaching and subject area) and experience (length of time) of a teacher, all of which are woven to affect how teaching is done and consequently the type of learning that takes place (Connor, Son, Hyman and Morrison, 2005). Numerous studies reflect that teacher credentials influence practice and since practice influences student performance, the greater the quality of the teacher (quality and level of college education), the greater the performance of students. It should be stated explicitly that effective teaching garners the best results in student outcome, not merely being a qualified and experienced teacher.
There are other skills and competencies deemed integral to the profession which have to do with public perception of the teacher as well student perception, according to Rohrs (1999). He believes that teachers of young people should possess ‘soft’ skills in addition to subject knowledge and the resultant requisite ability to impart same clearly- identified as authority, understanding the cares, problems and goals of students, personal life experiences which makes one relatable, and having a sense of humour, which shows education in a positive light. (Rohrs 1999). This would represent a paradigm shift in the way teaching is practiced locally.
Classroom Activity (Practice-Instruction -Interaction- Outcome).
Part of our local assessment in teacher training, is classroom management skills. Not only is the ability to regulate student behaviour and learning necessary for teaching the lesson, it also serves to predict student performance, posited by Brophy and Good (1986) as cited in Connor et al (2005). It was also found that practitioners of the belief that their instruction was a fundamental aspect of their practice and who also believed that they are responsible for their students’ performance ensured that the learning environment was conducive and realized better student performance.
There is no single strategy that will be applicable to all the needs in the classroom, however, as posited by Hayes (2006), an amalgamation of approaches will be indeed useful by establishing a literacy encouraging environment. Introducing students to different reading strategies, doing activities to recognize letters and their sounds, incorporating stories that students are familiar with and interested in, incorporating games and activities to build language skills, sharing books with students, among others. These can be tailored depending on the learners present and their level of mastery.
The X Factor – Caring
While it is known that our culture encourages some degree of hostility and nonchalance within the classroom and while relating to students, not all teachers are of this disposition and even more importantly, does this actually work? Given the indiscipline, lack of proper upbringing, disregard for property, ill-mannered nature of today’s children, it is no wonder that some Jamaican teachers have adopted an attitude of nonchalance and hostility to assist in controlling their students and to attain classroom control. This type of behaviour or relationship is similar to what many of the students experience at home and for this reason teachers have adopted it in their regular activities to deal with difficult or disruptive students but what does it accomplish in real terms?
Sanacore (2004) asserts that when teachers genuinely care for their students and are able to identify and appreciate their background and experiences then their literacy and academic performance improves. Referring to the U.S., Sanacore (2004) purports that African American students perform more poorly than their white counterparts, however, the formation of a trusting relationship built on the foundation that their teachers genuinely care for them affords better performance academically, personally and emotionally especially for African American students. Further to this, Sanacore (2004) professes this type of relationship between student and teacher is requisite for a successful career as a teacher. With higher rates of divorce, unstable or inadequate family structures, matrifocal households, the absence of after school supervision, experimenting with drugs, sex, alcohol etc and depression, all of which are more likely for black students, they are automatically placed at a disadvantage to achieving educationally and some initiative must be in place to combat these ills. Incorporating an understanding and acceptance of their culture and language are key aspects in forming this trusting relationship. Locally, this translates to incorporating the Creole into daily activities which may foster this type of relationship as it should show acceptance and that it is not deemed lower than the Standard Jamaican English.
Acquiring Literacy
There are four fundamental principles vital to acquiring literacy as outlined by Shanker and Ekwall (1998, p.3), asserting that every student who struggles with reading can make “significant progress”. These constitute providing conditions in which students’ instructional needs are met. By this, the teacher should supply each student with the appropriate instruction that teaches the requisite skills to pronounce and decode new words. Another role of the teacher which will realize increases in literacy attainment is how information is treated and monitored. New information should be presented in small increments while the teacher guides the instruction and monitors students’ learning. Equally integral in this process is the role of students. Having been taught reading, students need to practice reading at appropriate levels of difficulty.
Snow, Burns, and Griffin (1998) as cited in Foorman and Torgesen (2001) have outlined the most vital elements to guarantee successful reading outcomes. These ideal conditions involve instruction that cultivates the following skills: phonemic awareness and decoding, word recognition, word decoding, text processing, spelling, vocabulary building, and writing, all of which are intimately woven to produce successful readers. The ability to sound words is perhaps the most basic foundation of reading and by extension literacy. When a student encounters a new word, even before they can use context clues to decipher word meaning, they must first identify the word. For this reason, phonemic awareness and decoding are indeed critical foundational elements in literacy acquisition. Further to that, having identified the word it must be viewed in light of the child’s previous knowledge of the word as well as in the context of the sentence.
There are specific skills and abilities which enable reading in students. As asserted by Shanker and Ekwall (1998), these can be classified in five major abilities/ skills – pre-reading, oral reading, decoding, comprehension, study skills and other abilities, in order of increasing difficulty from reading to literacy. Pre- reading ability is characterized using two components- phonemic awareness and alphabet knowledge. A child possesses alphabet knowledge when he knows (is able to identify and sound) the letters of the alphabet. Having attained this skill, phonemic awareness is now attainable. A phoneme is the smallest sound in a word, while a grapheme is the representation of the sound (the actual letter). Being able to understand and manipulate phonemes is at the crux of phonemic awareness. Alphabet knowledge and phonemic awareness may well be considered the two most basic and fundamental factors in reading ability.
The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development in the U.S assembled a Panel in 1997 (and concluded in 2000) with the mission of determining best practices in teaching literacy (Carnine, Silbert, Kame’enui, Tarver and Jungjohann (2006). The Panel outlined five key skills and abilities as essential to increasing the literacy level of students struggling with literacy: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, text comprehension and vocabulary skills. Essentially, the ability to manipulate phonemes (letter sounds), which is what phonemic awareness is concerned with, produces increases reading and spelling abilities in students. Deemed to produce the most outstanding results in raising literacy levels for poorly performing students and those with learning disabilities, systematic phonics instruction directly teaches students letter sounds relationships, and then blending these sounds to form familiar words. Building on these skills, the student should attain fluency. Fluency instruction was found to build word recognition, comprehension and of course fluency in reading. Another integral aspect of literacy and arguably the defining factor between it and reading is comprehension. Largely, this is the ability to make sense of what was read, remember and relate in own words. Learning the meaning of new words, or building vocabulary skills is essential to comprehension. Vocabulary instruction which exposes students to words repeatedly and on multiple occasions is integral to attaining literacy according to the findings of the Panel. Each skill/ ability builds on the preceding skill, which could be the reason the first two skills- phonemic awareness and phonics are the most integral and were found to garner the greatest results in raising literacy.
The constructivist school of thought in education employs nontraditional teaching strategies in which students are intimately involved in their education. Such an approach to literacy acquisition seems to be the most effective. Constructivism’s focal points are students’ and their ideas, experiences and knowledge, all of which are incorporated in the teaching- learning process. Sustained silent reading is a practice that involves students’ independent reading of material of their own choice, with minimal interruption from the instructor. Bryan et al (2003) as cited in Reutzel, Jones, Fawson and Smith (2008, p. 195) note research in that day which revealed that “even the most disengaged students in the class remained on task for up to three weeks without additional monitoring visits” with minimal assistance from their teacher through interactions, feedback and conferences. The criticisms of sustained silent reading made way for Scaffolded Silent Reading which saw the intervention the facilitator in monitoring her students during reading an also in selecting the material to be read. (Stahl 2004, as cited in Reutzel et al 2008). Scaffolded Silent Reading differs from the conventional sustained silent reading in that with the former technique, the teacher is more involved in the process, from a constructivist viewpoint. Students are taught book selection so that they will be challenged at an appropriate level of difficulty, different genres and to complete reading in a specified time. In addition to this, students read aloud and discuss what was read with the facilitator, attributes which were not present in sustained silent reading (Reutzel et al 2008). This was implemented in a third grade classroom and its successes were on par with a scientifically established and validated approach (Reutzel et al 2008).
Gardener’s Theory of multiple Intelligences and Literacy
According to Howard Gardener, there are eight types of intelligence- namely mathematical-logical, visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic with most individuals displaying strongly facets of two intelligences (Davis, 2009). While making reference to the college classroom, Davis (2009, p. 275), notes that “traditional college courses tend to emphasize verbal-linguistic and mathematical-logical thinking”. While students’ learning styles are different and they are stronger in other intelligences apart from verbal-linguistic or mathematical-logical thinking, the way teaching is done in many of our classrooms would suit persons inclined to these intelligences. Notwithstanding the fact that there have been visible attempts to incorporate other intelligences, many primary level classrooms are still entrenched in this intelligence.
Mixed Abilities
Hayes (2006 p. 62), noted the challenges teachers face in the classroom preparing for students of differing abilities: “slower and faster workers, less and more intelligent, keen and apathetic, confident and insecure”. In every classroom (and likewise work environment), there will be learners (and workers) of high intellect and others of lower intellect, and differentiating instruction to cater to all needs will be unrealistic. Hayes (2006), noted that instead teachers should monitor and assess their students. He also noted two types of differentiation methods teachers can utilize – they can either assign very similar tasks to students and expect different outcomes based on student ability; or students can be assigned tasks that differ in complexity but all will be expected to complete the task.
Creole Interference (The Acquisition of English as a Second Language)
The mother tongue of most Jamaicans is Jamaican Creole (patois), and not the Standard Jamaican English which closely mirrors British English. There are many implications for teaching and learning owing to this single fact. In essence what this means is that Standard Jamaican English must be taught, since it is not the mother tongue of most, similar to the manner in which French, Spanish or Latin is taught. Gee (1991) as cited in Knobel (1999) clearly notes the difference between language acquisition and learning. Acquisition suggests that the skill is developed in an indirect, natural manner, while, the learning of language is described as “conscious.., formal, direct and explicit” and may or may not be conducted by a trained practitioner. (Knobel 1999, p. 41). That “acquirers perform more effectively than learners” according to Gee as cited in Knobel (1999, p.41) also has myriad intricate implications for the way in which we treat with Language and Literacy. There are two types of discourses persons are exposed to – primary and secondary. One’s primary discourse, purported by Gee (1991a, 7) as cited in Knobel (1999), is garnered through contact with immediate family members, or our first agents of socialization while second discourse is garnered through interactions with persons or institutions in a more formal, less relaxed setting and through secondary agents of socialization. Implicit and integral here is the fact that the quality of this source of initial exposure to language and literacy plays a paramount role in later language and literacy acquisition. It can then be concluded that language acquisition is very intimately related to our primary discourse, while language learning occurs through our secondary agents of socialization. It is also noteworthy that, as posited by (Gee 1996) as cited in Knobel (1999), normally before formal learning occurs, some level of informal, naturalistic acquisition occurs first and the effect of acquisition on learning varies with each individual. Notwithstanding this, the extent to which the “knowledge and practice” of one’s primary or acquired discourse resembles their second discourse determines the ease with each one learns the second discourse and the amount that needs to be learnt. Knobel (1999, p. 42). Pointing to research conducted by Heath (1983) among black and white lower class and white middle class, Knobel (1999 p.42)) notes the lack of utility of the primary discourse of the working class and the contrasting efficacy of the said discourse of the white middle class in the secondary discourse at school. Working class children were not accustomed to school practices, and deemed academically inferior to the middle class white, whose primary discourse enabled a successful, seemingly effortless transfer into the secondary discourse of their school. (Knobel, 1999).
Mirroring what exists locally, Liddicoat (2007) notes that the tendency for school based literacy programs to be centred around literacy acquisition in the official language, not the mother tongue. This may well be problematic, since according to Lotherington, (1998), as cited in Liddicoat (2007), initially education should develop foundational literacy skills in the mother tongue of the learner, which can be used as the basis for literacy acquisition in the official or second language. This is also vital because the official language is normally the language of internal and external examinations.
Christie (2010) points to the work of Pollard (1978, 1998) on code switching locally. Largely, code switching is the ability to transfer from one language to the other, locally from Standard Jamaican English to Jamaican Creole and vice versa. Speakers of the official language tend to code switch to the vernacular in situations where Creole enhances story telling with humour. Contrastingly though, speakers of the Jamaican Creole using this language when conversing with family members and friends even during important dialogue. The difference is that he utilizes a language close to the official one, having not acquired the official language, in the social setting dictates its necessity. (Christie 2010). The successful implementation of Standard Jamaican English into the regular speech of Jamaican Creole speakers requires the transition from “what they already knew” and leading them towards “mastery of what they needed to know, i.e. the differences between the JC and SJE systems.” (Christie 2010 p. 3). Positing further that integral in the realization of this goal is the familiarity of the teacher with the language of her students outside the classroom.
Effects of Illiteracy
As defined earlier, reading is merely one component of literacy, but an essential component. Noting the effects of illiteracy, Jennings, Caldwell and Lerner (2006, p. 3) identify the susceptibility of persons with reading problems to the following social ills. These were identified as the increased propensity to become: unemployed, high school dropout, poverty and to engage in criminal/ anti social behaviours. Noteworthy also is the relationship between illiteracy and poor academic performance. The following relationship then becomes evident between poor academic performance and the social ills identified above. In much a similar way, Carnine et al (2006 p.4) have outlined similar effects of inadequate literacy as asserted by Dr. Lyons (2001) of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development in the U.S. Pointing to statistics which reveal an astounding thirty eight percent (38%) of fourth grade students were illiterate, that is unable to read and understand a simple paragraph. He further professed the increased risk of reading failure among the poor. Of the students most likely not to complete high school, an alarming seventy five percent (75%) will have literacy struggles. This obviously means that intervening in the lives of students struggling with literacy is paramount to decreasing the propensity of high school drop outs, which translates to a decrease in antisocial and criminal behaviours. Lyon (2001) also refers to survey conducted among young adults with criminal records which reveal that at least fifty percent (50%) of them experienced literacy struggles. Closely related to criminality and literacy struggles also, is the high proportion of substance abusers which are illiterate (around half of substance abusers have some reading difficulty). A child’s inability to read severely damages his ability to read to learn across subject areas. Every subject has some theoretical component regardless of how tactile and practical the subject may be. This inability to read to learn hampers a healthy self concept for the child and belief in his own self to attain academically, all of which may again manifest as disruptive and anti social behavior in the classroom towards students and teacher alike.
Employment Opportunities
Jennings, Caldwell and Lerner (2006, p.4) explain the precarious position illiteracy places its victim in. Noting the ease and fast pace with which jobs become obsolete, staying afloat in a globalizing, dynamic and rapidly changing world many times produces shifts in demand for certain careers. Resultantly, workers require up training and retraining to keep a job. Literacy plays a fundamentally momentous role in this training, this also places the unskilled and semi-skilled at a disadvantage when job seeking as employers seek less value in these inadequately educated workers than in those that are properly trained. With fewer employment opportunities these persons will often resort to illegal means of acquiring an income.
Philosophies and Theories
There are many philosophical schools of thought to which teachers can subscribe. Some practitioners employ more than one schools of thought in their pedagogy. According to Dunn (2005), there are essentially four philosophies that exist, namely these are: idealism, realism, medieval philosophy and pragmatism. Under pragmatism comes theories of progressivism and constructivism. Subscribers to this philosophical school have children centered classrooms, non-traditional, non-authoritative in which learner discoveries occur. The teacher’s role is that of a facilitator and not dictator. Students learn to problem solve and become functional citizens and contributors to society. Dunn (2005) further explained that while both progressivism and constructivism are new era theories, the latter believes that children construct meaning on their own making sense of the world based on previously acquired knowledge/ experience. Progressivists on the other hand believes in learners being taught what is relevant and interesting the learner. The philosophy a teacher/ facilitator holds will greatly determine how the teaching/ learning exchange occurs in a learning space. At the heart of constructivism is that children learn best when they make the discovery on their own. It is more intimate, and takes away from the teacher having to motivate learners. Locally, the Ministry determines curricula across institutions, so what is taught should not differ, however, depending on the school of thought to which one subscribes, how the curricula is taught differs and this results in differences in performance. For the acquisition of literacy, student engagement and level of interest are important in achieving this goal. While a single philosophical theory may not be sufficient, amalgamating aspects of the traditional with the non-traditional may be optimal.
Emotional Intelligence
There are many different theorists who have had an insurmountable effect on education and the way it is offered today. Theorists such as Piaget, Maslow, Erikson, Bloom, Kohlberg, and Vygotsky are some such thinkers who have shaped pedagogy and andragogy today. While Piaget focused on the cognitive development of students and how their schemas adjust and assimilate new experiences, Kohlberg focused on moral development (Reed, Bergemann and Olson 1998). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs range from the physiological (safety) to belonging (love) to knowledge (understanding), aesthetics (beauty) and finally self-actualization (maximizing potential), as proposed by Reed, Bergemann and Olson (1998). Maslow identified with the psychological aspects of learning. In a similar fashion, Erikson constructed eight stages of psychosocial development which also focus on socio-emotional development. Persons can either have a crisis or a success at each stage. The stages are as follows: trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame and doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation and integrity vs despair. Emotional attributes are added in the fourth stage, (industry vs inferiority ages 6 – 12 years) where children experience pleasure from “perseverance and productivity; neighborhood, school and peer interaction becomes increasingly important” Reed, Bergemann and Olson (1998, p. 295). It is at this stage of development that children begin to view themselves critically and compare themselves with others. Both Erikson and Maslow consider the effects of psychosocial events on the learner and that success/ failure at each stage help/ hinder success at subsequent stages. Students who experience difficulty at any stage may also have difficulties in the classroom since there is a psychology of education.
CHAPTER TWO
This chapter explores some discourses surrounding literacy regionally as well as internationally. There are differing views on the definition of literacy, causes, risk factors and consequences of illiteracy as well as current research on literacy will also be explored.
Profile of Students
Both subjects hail from the parish of St. Catherine and are enrolled in Grade four at the same shift primary school in St. Catherine. They were both nine years old and while they had a few things in common, they were still very different. The male subject was nine years old and was from an extended family. His mother worked at a wholesale and his father worked overseas for half of the year. Subject A’s household consisted of his mother, aunt, sister and brothers. The female subject on the other hand lived with her mother and baby brother. She would visit her father and his family on weekends and holidays.
Both subjects have attended the school from the first grade to their current grade. During this period, the performance of the female subject remained stable with each grade promotion, while the performance of the male subject was stable until it decreased somewhat when more difficult work came into play. This started between grades three and four.
Subject A was a visual/ tactile leaner. He enjoyed the hands- on approach that Mathematics provided. The regular ‘chalk and talk’ method was not the most effective pedagogy for his learning needs. His attention span was very small and from observations, if he was not being actively engaged, would become somewhat disinterested and disengaged. Jermaine’s pace was slower than the rest of this class and his needs were also different. He required specialized instruction that attended to his tactile need and the pace at which he grasped information.
For Subject B, whenever she was engaged visually/ kinesthetically, her understanding improved. She was more interested in Language Arts and Science than the male subject, and enjoyed activities that engaged more than just her hearing. One distinct need that was obvious was that the pace at which she learned was slower than the other students and even the other subject in this study.
Important to note is the fact that none of the parents reported any illnesses/ abnormalities during their pregnancy.
Historical Overview and definitions
Among the similarities found among Caribbean states, as identified by Lambert (2010) is that our education systems emanated from trust funds or church organizations and were made official in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. He further noted that, while historically the official languages of this region were European in descent, the mother tongue, which is the language of the masses, accounted for more than ninety per cent (90%) of the language used and was not of European descent. This resultantly created a divide on the basis of language between the elite minority and the common majority. Similarly, in reference to the language situation in the West Indies, in that day, Craig (1969) notes conclusions of research conducted within that period. Of it he notes, “these studies show that the natural speech of West Indian children differs so much from the kind of English incorrectly assumed to be their ‘mother tongue’ that traditional methods of teaching English are inappropriate” (Craig 1969 p. 3), and went further to mention suggestions of teaching standard English as a foreign language. This seems to mirror the language situation of this day where innumerable students are adept in the use of the mother tongue, but experience difficulties using the official language. This is particularly true of students in primary schools.
Another similarity noted was that literacy through education was seen as the means to the end of climbing the socioeconomic ladder for the region (Lambert 2010). This regional historical context frames the beginnings of our education system locally, characteristics of which have persisted until today. Then, education, and by extension, literacy was seen as our main stay to achieve economically, aligned with the suppositions of the UNESCO today. Denoting the pivotal place literacy holds in securing an economically safe future, the UNESCO themed International Literacy Day 2014 “Literacy and Sustainable Development”. This symbolizes the crucial function of literacy in securing and maintaining socioeconomic and environmental gains. From this we can deduce that sustainability is an attribute of literacy or at least both are intimately related. Fundamentally, literacy must be preserved for successive generations to benefit from; and the advances made through literacy today should result in advances in technology, science, education and other sectors sufficient to be preserved for subsequent generations.
The UNESCO has categorized literacy using 4 headings, namely as: 1. a set of skills; 2. as applied, as practiced and situated; 3. as a learning process; and 4. as text (UNESCO, 2006). In essence, not only is it the ability to read and write, but the ability to apply what we have read and also considers the social setting in which literacy is acquired and used. By the UNESCO’s definition, literacy is also viewed as a process; this aspect considers the procedures and actions involved in acquiring knowledge, the means, not just the end. Literacy may be acquired in numerous ways, formally within the confines of an institution, through apprenticeship, through on the job training or repeated exposure or interaction (experience). Belanger, (n.d) as cited in Jarvis 2009, speak of the plural reality of literacy depending on the domain or cultural context in which it is being referred. The researcher posits that “Literacy is, indeed, determined by the various cultural, political, and economic contexts of the community in which it is developed” Belanger (n.d.) as cited in Jarvis (2009, p.81). Noting further that “Media literacy, computer literacy, health literacy, and environment literacy are all new literacies (Belanger as cited in Jarvis 2009 p. 81). The concept of meta literacy is also of importance- the true test of literacy, is being able to utilize knowledge in one area in another area, not merely the knowledge, but application of it rather (Belanger, as cited in Jarvis, (2009). This raises inquiry into persons considered ‘street smart’ who may not necessarily be ‘book smart’; likewise persons possessing practical but not theoretical knowledge. Does this then mean that such persons are totally illiterate and by what standard? Our Ministry of Education, as aforementioned, operates with the vision that ‘Every Child can Learn, Every Child Must Learn’, implied by this is the fact that regardless of the means used, regardless of the content being learnt, regardless of the instructor and the context in which it occurs, every child possesses an innate ability to learn something, regardless of what that ‘thing’ is, regardless of how technical or simplistic in nature. This also means that every child can become literate in some field or some area of interest.
What does it mean to be literate?
There are different types of Literacies – which are specific to a particular field or area - e.g. computer literacy. So one who is computer literate, possesses the skills and knowledge and knows how to apply this knowledge of computers, however, this person may not be knowledgeable in Mathematics, Science or another subject area. Such persons may or may not possess academic certification attesting to their computer ‘literacy’, however, they have a natural appreciation and understanding of computers exacerbated by interacting with this device over time. The reverse may also hold true where someone certified in computer use may experience difficulty with the practical application of this knowledge when interacting with the device. In this case, which individual is deemed literate depends on the definition or standard being used to assess their literacy. Locally, there has been debate over the quality of students from two prominent universities- the University of the West Indies and the University of Technology. The debate has been centred around the fact that the former university prepares graduates theoretically, while the latter provides extensive practical experience to its students. Is the theoretical (which is often accompanied by certification) given precedence over the practical? Is there a holistic definition of the term literacy?
“Literacy embodies a complex set of competencies including (but not confined to) understanding the symbol systems of a language, writing, oral expression, critical thinking, digital acumen, and problem solving. Literacy is contextually situated, dynamic, and engages lifelong processes. It is a vehicle for personal achievement and for social and political change in national, regional and global cultures. (CETT, Framework 2009 as cited in Lambert 2010.)
This definition as supplied by the Centre of Excellence in Teacher Training shows that there is a cognitive, written and verbal component of literacy. Bryans (1998) as cited in Lambert (2010) described our regional Literacy situation precisely by highlighting the integral relationship among literacy, language and culture. She noted that teachers’ notions of this interchange were essential in alleviating our Literacy challenges. None of the component parts is independent of the other. Evidently, reading is not synonymous to literacy, but is in fact one vital element in the process of acquiring literacy. Pointing to the necessity of literacy in especially the upper levels of primary school, Lubliner (2004) clearly states that “reading is the vehicle for acquiring knowledge in the upper -grade classroom, a necessary precursor to completing academic tasks across the curriculum.” She asserts further that the inability of these upper grade children to read effectively begins or enhances their educational demise which will perpetuate if not intercepted. For adept readers, as proposed by Lubliner (2004), the reading process largely entails text comprehension while for beginning readers, the reading process focuses on decoding words and also text comprehension. The more fluent the reader in decoding, the more easily they will be able to understand what is being read. Obviously then, a student that has difficulty with decoding will have an even greater challenge understanding what has been read. Lubliner embarked on a study in which she identified three (3) students in her class as having significant challenges with reading and implemented a strategy to ameliorate these challenges. The strategy used to increase their decoding and comprehension skills was entrenched in the cognitive school of thought and seemed most appropriate for these students. It employed a technique in her intervention which she called “Self Generated, Main Idea Questioning”. In this technique, she read a passage to her struggling students and then encouraged them to ask questions about the passage read. This helped with having a purpose for reading and thereby utilised the two aspects of the reading process - decoding and comprehension. The intervention involved modelling, in which she would read the passage and then ‘think aloud’ the questioning to her literacy-challenged students. She used a questioning Cue Card organized around these ideas- think, build, summarize, question, ask. First, students were to think about what the author was saying in each sentence. They then had to organize the ideas for meaning. Having done this, they were to identify the main idea in the passage and then select a question to answer (who, what, when where, how, why) about this main idea and then finally ask that question and contemplate an answer. She began through modelling and encouraging students along until they were able to effectively manage on their own. This intervention worked well with her non-readers and among the successes was that students’ confidence had increased, in addition to their reading skills. The success reported was mainly due to the fact that the students were heavily involved in the process, were encouraged and supported and received requisite attention from the facilitator. The presence of these factors is paramount to literacy attainment for students that are struggling with literacy. It is also essential to note that this type of remedial strategy can be tweaked to become preventive and more importantly, the implementation rests in the hands of practitioners, with very little effort required by parents, school administration, the governing body or any other stakeholder.
Standard Jamaican English as a Foreign Language
Locally, the Bilingual Education Project was a pilot study undertaken by the Jamaican Language Unit Department of the University of the West Indies, Mona aimed at exploring the most effective methodology to employ bilingualism (the use of Jamaican Standard English and Jamaican Creole) instructionally in primary classrooms. The programme was initiated targeting students in grades one to four “determining the most effective means of encouraging full bilingualism for primary level students at the Grades 1 – 4 in Jamaican Creole (JC) and Standard Jamaican English (SJE).” The Project was embarked on in response to the challenges outlined in the Language Education Policy tabled by the Ministry of Education. As noted by Robinson (2014) while this programme’s implementers reported successes, especially among boys, its use within schools has been restricted by the government. Bilingualism may facilitate a literacy transition taking strugglers from where they are to where they should be and should not be discarded on account of this. Certainly with the mother tongue of most Jamaicans beings Creole, credence should be given to this method for it to be integrated into our classrooms. In a similar fashion to the way a foreign language (French, Spanish, Latin) is taught, Standard Jamaican English should also be taught. This includes word translation exercises from Creole to the standard. In our foreign language classes instruction is done completely or almost completely in the foreign language. On the contrary, instruction is largely done in the ‘mother tongue’ with gradual additions of words of the desired language. For instruction to be done in a foreign language for students adept only in the mother tongue will raise some concerns. Bilingualism may be used alongside other strategies to raise literacy levels in non readers.
Pre-Determinants
Within our country, it is known and accepted that students from preparatory schools tend to outperform students from public primary schools. While the views on the reasons for this disparity in performance are varied, it should be equally accepted that it is not that the students at preparatory schools are born more intelligent than those at primary schools. On the contrary, the environment created at home is a more potent determinant of how well a child reads, and by extension, performs in school. Clark and Picton (2012) conducted research through the National Literacy Trust among eight to sixteen year old students in the United Kingdom assessing the effect of family support on literacy. The findings of this report revealed that the quality of the home environment plays a more significant role in a child’s propensity to read than family income or social status. Herein lies a controversy, having a literacy stimulating home environment is not dependent on income or societal status, however, income determines status and both often times determine the activities that occur at home. Notwithstanding this relationship, there are always anomalies and exceptions to the rule since there are many instances in which students from poverty stricken backgrounds have defied the odds and have done exceptionally well academically. In the same study conducted in the United Kingdom, the majority of respondents (83%) in the survey reported that they receive some amount of encouragement to read from their mother, which is considerably greater than the proportion of participants that receive said encouragement from their male parent (63%). It may be that because females are more inclined to be expressive through language than males that they encourage their children to read more than males. The research also pointed out that receiving encouragement to read from a parent facilitates students seeing themselves as readers, enjoying reading, reading frequently and viewing reading positively. Almost half of participants who read above their grade level received a lot of encouragement to read from their mother, in comparison with their counterparts reading below grade level, where twenty nine per cent (29%) of them receive such encouragement from their male parent. While it is important to have reading support from either parents, it seems the female parent is more likely to offer this support and when it is offered, the results are tremendous. Most interesting is the conclusion of the researchers that “family support for literacy therefore does not require a high level of academic ability or substantial financial resources; simple, everyday actions such as encouraging children to read and being seen reading can contribute positively to young people’s reading attitudes and
behaviour” (Clark and Picton 2012 p. 6). Paradoxically, research conducted in the U.S. demonstrates that “language and preliteracy development has a profound effect on young children’s successful transition to school and, in particular, on their success in learning to read” (Dickinson and Tabors 2001; Whitehurst and Lonigan 1998 as cited in Wasik, Bond and Hindman 2006 p. 63). One significant factor which affects the quality of a child’s pre-literacy and language development is their socioeconomic status- derived from their parents or with those in whom they come in contact (Dickinson & Tabors, 2001; Strickland, 2001; Wells, 1986 as cited in Wasik et al 2006). Poverty stricken children are at a distinct disadvantage because language used by the adults they come in contact with may not be in conjunction with printed word and not aligned with their culture, lagging behind their wealthier counterparts (Snow et al., 1998; Wells, 1986 and Hart & Risley, 1995 as cited in Wasik et al, 2006). One researcher believed that the disadvantage imposed on the children of the less fortunate were because of “parents’ limited use of literacy skills and the absence of books in the home” (Wasik et al 2006, p. 64). This type of disparity in language between the upper and lower classes has always existed from the beginnings of our education system, however, what is alarming is that it has persisted until today.
There are numerous reasons students continue to experience difficulty with literacy, and often times, an amalgamation of factors are at work. Such factors as environmental, social, emotional, and natural intelligence impact students’ propensity to learn. Among these are: individual factors; factors in the home, social environment; factors in the school environment; factors of cultural and linguistic diversity (Jennings, Caldwell and Lerner 2006). Factors directly related to the individual are those which, despite having all the necessary interventions and support, still produce a difficulty with reading and literacy and have to do with brain functioning, not external factors.
External causes of illiteracy are found in the home, social and environmental settings and are manifest in different ways. Where poverty and instability in the home persist, there tends to be a negative impact on learning and literacy. Equally detrimental is the prevalence of violence and crime in the community in which a student lives. By no means is it implied that there are no exceptions, however, largely these phenomena adversely affect learning, and the cases in which they don’t are much fewer than the cases in which they do. These factors also predispose affected students to health and emotional risks. Improper nutrition and eating habits are often second nature to the poor and uneducated, which are requisite for normal brain functioning and learning.
Other Causes of Illiteracy
Within the walls of the schools also lie factors that promote reading difficulties. Such factors include the fact that some practitioners instead of teaching children to read, often read to them. This is also detrimental as, students who struggle with reading and poorly performing children read considerably less than students who do not have this struggle. These are the students who need the instruction in reading and practice with reading most, so where this is lacking, these students will consequently perform poorly in literacy and much all other subject areas. In a very similar way, students whose mother tongue is not English experience particular difficulty with reading. Students who are exposed to other Languages, especially at home, may well we able to function orally, however, they face a serious struggle understanding written English. In our society where our native language is Jamaican Creole, a similar situation exists. The other subject areas are in Standard Jamaican English, with which they may not have much exposure.
Inherent Risk Factors
Roth, Paul and Pierotti (2006) note some factors that predispose a child to literacy challenges. Children that experienced speech and language disorders in preschool were likely to experience difficulties reading and writing later in their schooling. Other factors, they contend, include physical or medical conditions (e.g., preterm birth requiring placement in a neonatal intensive care unit, chronic ear infections, fetal alcohol syndrome, cerebral palsy), developmental disorders (e.g., mental retardation, autism spectrum), poverty, home literacy environment, and family history of language or literacy disabilities. Many students with learning disabilities are in mainstream classes, where, sometimes, their learning needs are not fully met because of a variety of reasons. (Kirk and Kirk, 1976, pp. 255-256), as cited in Spafford and Grosser (1996, p. 5) defined learning disabilities as a disorder in, “not just language, speech, or reading, but also the associated communication skills requisite for socialization”. This then implies the psychosocial effect of being learning disabled, which, many times manifest as antisocial behaviours.
Among the early indicators of dyslexia, as identified by Spafford and Grosser (1996) are: delays in speech and language development; difficulties in reading, math, writing, and spelling,; difficulties in time and space concepts; difficulty copying work; disorganization in thinking through a problem, planning ahead and following directions; poor self image and self confidence; poor interaction with other students; excessively distractible; poor study habits and test performance; memory problems; hyperactivity, impulsivity, inattention and low tolerance. Often times these behaviours are assessed as mischievous, however, specialized care is the only solution in such cases.
Parental involvement
In a research conducted in the U.S. on the effect of direct parental involvement in the classroom on children’s emerging reading among kindergarteners, it was found that students whose parents volunteered (whether directly in classroom or indirectly at home) reported better signs of reading than students of non participant parents (Porter Decusati and Johnson 2004). In addition to this, the research revealed that children in general were not averse to the presence of their caretakers in the classroom and also that parents’ current reading practices with their children were linked to classroom participation and not their own early literacy experiences. (Porter Decusati and Johnson, 2004). Another noteworthy point unearthed by this research was the fact that the predisposition of the parents of ethnic minorities, low socioeconomic standing, and parents of children with special needs or extraneous circumstances (Porter Deusati and Johnson, 2004). Statement incomplete Hayes, (2006 p. 168) disclosed that the “most important period for literacy development is during the early childhood years from birth to 8 years, with regular exposure to books and stories being a crucial factor in learning to read.” Parents have a very fundamental role to play at this stage through the exposure they provide to their young children, the more familiar they are with words and stories, the easier the acquisition of literacy in subsequent years.
Quality of learning environment at school
Teacher quality
It has often been said that a student is only as good as his teacher, although the degree of truth in this statement is arguable. UNESCO’s Director General, Bokova, strongly affirms this statement stating that “A quality universal primary education will remain a distant dream for millions of children living in countries without enough trained teachers in classrooms” UNESCO 2014. Indeed, there are varying degrees of the presence of qualified teachers depending on the country, but irrespective of this, “Hiring and training new and already established teachers is fundamental to protecting children’s ability to learn in school.” (UNESCO 2014). Another paramount feature in literacy acquisition is the quality of pedagogy students are exposed to. Whether the environment is print-rich, encourages reading or incites interest in non readers is an attribute of the practices or strategies of the instructor or school. In a research ascertaining the relationship among a teacher’s level of qualification, her classroom practices and subsequent student performance among first graders, further credence is given to this proposition that teacher quality affects student learning (Connor, Son, Hyman and Morrison, 2005). Darling-Hammond, (2000); Darling-Hammond & Youngs, (2002); Nye, Konstantopoulos, & Hedges, (2004) as cited in Connor, Son, Hyman and Morrison (2005) purport that the ability of a teacher to teach her students effectively is one of the factors paramount to her students’ success in school. Notwithstanding this, there are “multiple sources of influence” on students’ success that are independent of the teacher and the school (Connor et al 2005 p. 344). These ‘sources of influence’ are not school derived and external to the teacher. There has been debate about teaching being an art and every artistic skill or talent must be developed to operate optimally. This inherent ability of the ‘born teacher’ must likewise be molded and professionally developed so as to enable this teacher to teach effectively. This is acquired through formal training. So whether innate or learnt, formal training and continuous, appropriately timed and paced up- training is essential for teaching success.
Teacher quality refers to the certification (credentials), education (knowledge about teaching and subject area) and experience (length of time) of a teacher, all of which are woven to affect how teaching is done and consequently the type of learning that takes place (Connor, Son, Hyman and Morrison, 2005). Numerous studies reflect that teacher credentials influence practice and since practice influences student performance, the greater the quality of the teacher (quality and level of college education), the greater the performance of students. It should be stated explicitly that effective teaching garners the best results in student outcome, not merely being a qualified and experienced teacher.
There are other skills and competencies deemed integral to the profession which have to do with public perception of the teacher as well student perception, according to Rohrs (1999). He believes that teachers of young people should possess ‘soft’ skills in addition to subject knowledge and the resultant requisite ability to impart same clearly- identified as authority, understanding the cares, problems and goals of students, personal life experiences which makes one relatable, and having a sense of humour, which shows education in a positive light. (Rohrs 1999). This would represent a paradigm shift in the way teaching is practiced locally.
Classroom Activity (Practice-Instruction -Interaction- Outcome).
Part of our local assessment in teacher training, is classroom management skills. Not only is the ability to regulate student behaviour and learning necessary for teaching the lesson, it also serves to predict student performance, posited by Brophy and Good (1986) as cited in Connor et al (2005). It was also found that practitioners of the belief that their instruction was a fundamental aspect of their practice and who also believed that they are responsible for their students’ performance ensured that the learning environment was conducive and realized better student performance.
There is no single strategy that will be applicable to all the needs in the classroom, however, as posited by Hayes (2006), an amalgamation of approaches will be indeed useful by establishing a literacy encouraging environment. Introducing students to different reading strategies, doing activities to recognize letters and their sounds, incorporating stories that students are familiar with and interested in, incorporating games and activities to build language skills, sharing books with students, among others. These can be tailored depending on the learners present and their level of mastery.
The X Factor – Caring
While it is known that our culture encourages some degree of hostility and nonchalance within the classroom and while relating to students, not all teachers are of this disposition and even more importantly, does this actually work? Given the indiscipline, lack of proper upbringing, disregard for property, ill-mannered nature of today’s children, it is no wonder that some Jamaican teachers have adopted an attitude of nonchalance and hostility to assist in controlling their students and to attain classroom control. This type of behaviour or relationship is similar to what many of the students experience at home and for this reason teachers have adopted it in their regular activities to deal with difficult or disruptive students but what does it accomplish in real terms?
Sanacore (2004) asserts that when teachers genuinely care for their students and are able to identify and appreciate their background and experiences then their literacy and academic performance improves. Referring to the U.S., Sanacore (2004) purports that African American students perform more poorly than their white counterparts, however, the formation of a trusting relationship built on the foundation that their teachers genuinely care for them affords better performance academically, personally and emotionally especially for African American students. Further to this, Sanacore (2004) professes this type of relationship between student and teacher is requisite for a successful career as a teacher. With higher rates of divorce, unstable or inadequate family structures, matrifocal households, the absence of after school supervision, experimenting with drugs, sex, alcohol etc and depression, all of which are more likely for black students, they are automatically placed at a disadvantage to achieving educationally and some initiative must be in place to combat these ills. Incorporating an understanding and acceptance of their culture and language are key aspects in forming this trusting relationship. Locally, this translates to incorporating the Creole into daily activities which may foster this type of relationship as it should show acceptance and that it is not deemed lower than the Standard Jamaican English.
Acquiring Literacy
There are four fundamental principles vital to acquiring literacy as outlined by Shanker and Ekwall (1998, p.3), asserting that every student who struggles with reading can make “significant progress”. These constitute providing conditions in which students’ instructional needs are met. By this, the teacher should supply each student with the appropriate instruction that teaches the requisite skills to pronounce and decode new words. Another role of the teacher which will realize increases in literacy attainment is how information is treated and monitored. New information should be presented in small increments while the teacher guides the instruction and monitors students’ learning. Equally integral in this process is the role of students. Having been taught reading, students need to practice reading at appropriate levels of difficulty.
Snow, Burns, and Griffin (1998) as cited in Foorman and Torgesen (2001) have outlined the most vital elements to guarantee successful reading outcomes. These ideal conditions involve instruction that cultivates the following skills: phonemic awareness and decoding, word recognition, word decoding, text processing, spelling, vocabulary building, and writing, all of which are intimately woven to produce successful readers. The ability to sound words is perhaps the most basic foundation of reading and by extension literacy. When a student encounters a new word, even before they can use context clues to decipher word meaning, they must first identify the word. For this reason, phonemic awareness and decoding are indeed critical foundational elements in literacy acquisition. Further to that, having identified the word it must be viewed in light of the child’s previous knowledge of the word as well as in the context of the sentence.
There are specific skills and abilities which enable reading in students. As asserted by Shanker and Ekwall (1998), these can be classified in five major abilities/ skills – pre-reading, oral reading, decoding, comprehension, study skills and other abilities, in order of increasing difficulty from reading to literacy. Pre- reading ability is characterized using two components- phonemic awareness and alphabet knowledge. A child possesses alphabet knowledge when he knows (is able to identify and sound) the letters of the alphabet. Having attained this skill, phonemic awareness is now attainable. A phoneme is the smallest sound in a word, while a grapheme is the representation of the sound (the actual letter). Being able to understand and manipulate phonemes is at the crux of phonemic awareness. Alphabet knowledge and phonemic awareness may well be considered the two most basic and fundamental factors in reading ability.
The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development in the U.S assembled a Panel in 1997 (and concluded in 2000) with the mission of determining best practices in teaching literacy (Carnine, Silbert, Kame’enui, Tarver and Jungjohann (2006). The Panel outlined five key skills and abilities as essential to increasing the literacy level of students struggling with literacy: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, text comprehension and vocabulary skills. Essentially, the ability to manipulate phonemes (letter sounds), which is what phonemic awareness is concerned with, produces increases reading and spelling abilities in students. Deemed to produce the most outstanding results in raising literacy levels for poorly performing students and those with learning disabilities, systematic phonics instruction directly teaches students letter sounds relationships, and then blending these sounds to form familiar words. Building on these skills, the student should attain fluency. Fluency instruction was found to build word recognition, comprehension and of course fluency in reading. Another integral aspect of literacy and arguably the defining factor between it and reading is comprehension. Largely, this is the ability to make sense of what was read, remember and relate in own words. Learning the meaning of new words, or building vocabulary skills is essential to comprehension. Vocabulary instruction which exposes students to words repeatedly and on multiple occasions is integral to attaining literacy according to the findings of the Panel. Each skill/ ability builds on the preceding skill, which could be the reason the first two skills- phonemic awareness and phonics are the most integral and were found to garner the greatest results in raising literacy.
The constructivist school of thought in education employs nontraditional teaching strategies in which students are intimately involved in their education. Such an approach to literacy acquisition seems to be the most effective. Constructivism’s focal points are students’ and their ideas, experiences and knowledge, all of which are incorporated in the teaching- learning process. Sustained silent reading is a practice that involves students’ independent reading of material of their own choice, with minimal interruption from the instructor. Bryan et al (2003) as cited in Reutzel, Jones, Fawson and Smith (2008, p. 195) note research in that day which revealed that “even the most disengaged students in the class remained on task for up to three weeks without additional monitoring visits” with minimal assistance from their teacher through interactions, feedback and conferences. The criticisms of sustained silent reading made way for Scaffolded Silent Reading which saw the intervention the facilitator in monitoring her students during reading an also in selecting the material to be read. (Stahl 2004, as cited in Reutzel et al 2008). Scaffolded Silent Reading differs from the conventional sustained silent reading in that with the former technique, the teacher is more involved in the process, from a constructivist viewpoint. Students are taught book selection so that they will be challenged at an appropriate level of difficulty, different genres and to complete reading in a specified time. In addition to this, students read aloud and discuss what was read with the facilitator, attributes which were not present in sustained silent reading (Reutzel et al 2008). This was implemented in a third grade classroom and its successes were on par with a scientifically established and validated approach (Reutzel et al 2008).
Gardener’s Theory of multiple Intelligences and Literacy
According to Howard Gardener, there are eight types of intelligence- namely mathematical-logical, visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic with most individuals displaying strongly facets of two intelligences (Davis, 2009). While making reference to the college classroom, Davis (2009, p. 275), notes that “traditional college courses tend to emphasize verbal-linguistic and mathematical-logical thinking”. While students’ learning styles are different and they are stronger in other intelligences apart from verbal-linguistic or mathematical-logical thinking, the way teaching is done in many of our classrooms would suit persons inclined to these intelligences. Notwithstanding the fact that there have been visible attempts to incorporate other intelligences, many primary level classrooms are still entrenched in this intelligence.
Mixed Abilities
Hayes (2006 p. 62), noted the challenges teachers face in the classroom preparing for students of differing abilities: “slower and faster workers, less and more intelligent, keen and apathetic, confident and insecure”. In every classroom (and likewise work environment), there will be learners (and workers) of high intellect and others of lower intellect, and differentiating instruction to cater to all needs will be unrealistic. Hayes (2006), noted that instead teachers should monitor and assess their students. He also noted two types of differentiation methods teachers can utilize – they can either assign very similar tasks to students and expect different outcomes based on student ability; or students can be assigned tasks that differ in complexity but all will be expected to complete the task.
Creole Interference (The Acquisition of English as a Second Language)
The mother tongue of most Jamaicans is Jamaican Creole (patois), and not the Standard Jamaican English which closely mirrors British English. There are many implications for teaching and learning owing to this single fact. In essence what this means is that Standard Jamaican English must be taught, since it is not the mother tongue of most, similar to the manner in which French, Spanish or Latin is taught. Gee (1991) as cited in Knobel (1999) clearly notes the difference between language acquisition and learning. Acquisition suggests that the skill is developed in an indirect, natural manner, while, the learning of language is described as “conscious.., formal, direct and explicit” and may or may not be conducted by a trained practitioner. (Knobel 1999, p. 41). That “acquirers perform more effectively than learners” according to Gee as cited in Knobel (1999, p.41) also has myriad intricate implications for the way in which we treat with Language and Literacy. There are two types of discourses persons are exposed to – primary and secondary. One’s primary discourse, purported by Gee (1991a, 7) as cited in Knobel (1999), is garnered through contact with immediate family members, or our first agents of socialization while second discourse is garnered through interactions with persons or institutions in a more formal, less relaxed setting and through secondary agents of socialization. Implicit and integral here is the fact that the quality of this source of initial exposure to language and literacy plays a paramount role in later language and literacy acquisition. It can then be concluded that language acquisition is very intimately related to our primary discourse, while language learning occurs through our secondary agents of socialization. It is also noteworthy that, as posited by (Gee 1996) as cited in Knobel (1999), normally before formal learning occurs, some level of informal, naturalistic acquisition occurs first and the effect of acquisition on learning varies with each individual. Notwithstanding this, the extent to which the “knowledge and practice” of one’s primary or acquired discourse resembles their second discourse determines the ease with each one learns the second discourse and the amount that needs to be learnt. Knobel (1999, p. 42). Pointing to research conducted by Heath (1983) among black and white lower class and white middle class, Knobel (1999 p.42)) notes the lack of utility of the primary discourse of the working class and the contrasting efficacy of the said discourse of the white middle class in the secondary discourse at school. Working class children were not accustomed to school practices, and deemed academically inferior to the middle class white, whose primary discourse enabled a successful, seemingly effortless transfer into the secondary discourse of their school. (Knobel, 1999).
Mirroring what exists locally, Liddicoat (2007) notes that the tendency for school based literacy programs to be centred around literacy acquisition in the official language, not the mother tongue. This may well be problematic, since according to Lotherington, (1998), as cited in Liddicoat (2007), initially education should develop foundational literacy skills in the mother tongue of the learner, which can be used as the basis for literacy acquisition in the official or second language. This is also vital because the official language is normally the language of internal and external examinations.
Christie (2010) points to the work of Pollard (1978, 1998) on code switching locally. Largely, code switching is the ability to transfer from one language to the other, locally from Standard Jamaican English to Jamaican Creole and vice versa. Speakers of the official language tend to code switch to the vernacular in situations where Creole enhances story telling with humour. Contrastingly though, speakers of the Jamaican Creole using this language when conversing with family members and friends even during important dialogue. The difference is that he utilizes a language close to the official one, having not acquired the official language, in the social setting dictates its necessity. (Christie 2010). The successful implementation of Standard Jamaican English into the regular speech of Jamaican Creole speakers requires the transition from “what they already knew” and leading them towards “mastery of what they needed to know, i.e. the differences between the JC and SJE systems.” (Christie 2010 p. 3). Positing further that integral in the realization of this goal is the familiarity of the teacher with the language of her students outside the classroom.
Effects of Illiteracy
As defined earlier, reading is merely one component of literacy, but an essential component. Noting the effects of illiteracy, Jennings, Caldwell and Lerner (2006, p. 3) identify the susceptibility of persons with reading problems to the following social ills. These were identified as the increased propensity to become: unemployed, high school dropout, poverty and to engage in criminal/ anti social behaviours. Noteworthy also is the relationship between illiteracy and poor academic performance. The following relationship then becomes evident between poor academic performance and the social ills identified above. In much a similar way, Carnine et al (2006 p.4) have outlined similar effects of inadequate literacy as asserted by Dr. Lyons (2001) of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development in the U.S. Pointing to statistics which reveal an astounding thirty eight percent (38%) of fourth grade students were illiterate, that is unable to read and understand a simple paragraph. He further professed the increased risk of reading failure among the poor. Of the students most likely not to complete high school, an alarming seventy five percent (75%) will have literacy struggles. This obviously means that intervening in the lives of students struggling with literacy is paramount to decreasing the propensity of high school drop outs, which translates to a decrease in antisocial and criminal behaviours. Lyon (2001) also refers to survey conducted among young adults with criminal records which reveal that at least fifty percent (50%) of them experienced literacy struggles. Closely related to criminality and literacy struggles also, is the high proportion of substance abusers which are illiterate (around half of substance abusers have some reading difficulty). A child’s inability to read severely damages his ability to read to learn across subject areas. Every subject has some theoretical component regardless of how tactile and practical the subject may be. This inability to read to learn hampers a healthy self concept for the child and belief in his own self to attain academically, all of which may again manifest as disruptive and anti social behavior in the classroom towards students and teacher alike.
Employment Opportunities
Jennings, Caldwell and Lerner (2006, p.4) explain the precarious position illiteracy places its victim in. Noting the ease and fast pace with which jobs become obsolete, staying afloat in a globalizing, dynamic and rapidly changing world many times produces shifts in demand for certain careers. Resultantly, workers require up training and retraining to keep a job. Literacy plays a fundamentally momentous role in this training, this also places the unskilled and semi-skilled at a disadvantage when job seeking as employers seek less value in these inadequately educated workers than in those that are properly trained. With fewer employment opportunities these persons will often resort to illegal means of acquiring an income.
Philosophies and Theories
There are many philosophical schools of thought to which teachers can subscribe. Some practitioners employ more than one schools of thought in their pedagogy. According to Dunn (2005), there are essentially four philosophies that exist, namely these are: idealism, realism, medieval philosophy and pragmatism. Under pragmatism comes theories of progressivism and constructivism. Subscribers to this philosophical school have children centered classrooms, non-traditional, non-authoritative in which learner discoveries occur. The teacher’s role is that of a facilitator and not dictator. Students learn to problem solve and become functional citizens and contributors to society. Dunn (2005) further explained that while both progressivism and constructivism are new era theories, the latter believes that children construct meaning on their own making sense of the world based on previously acquired knowledge/ experience. Progressivists on the other hand believes in learners being taught what is relevant and interesting the learner. The philosophy a teacher/ facilitator holds will greatly determine how the teaching/ learning exchange occurs in a learning space. At the heart of constructivism is that children learn best when they make the discovery on their own. It is more intimate, and takes away from the teacher having to motivate learners. Locally, the Ministry determines curricula across institutions, so what is taught should not differ, however, depending on the school of thought to which one subscribes, how the curricula is taught differs and this results in differences in performance. For the acquisition of literacy, student engagement and level of interest are important in achieving this goal. While a single philosophical theory may not be sufficient, amalgamating aspects of the traditional with the non-traditional may be optimal.
Emotional Intelligence
There are many different theorists who have had an insurmountable effect on education and the way it is offered today. Theorists such as Piaget, Maslow, Erikson, Bloom, Kohlberg, and Vygotsky are some such thinkers who have shaped pedagogy and andragogy today. While Piaget focused on the cognitive development of students and how their schemas adjust and assimilate new experiences, Kohlberg focused on moral development (Reed, Bergemann and Olson 1998). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs range from the physiological (safety) to belonging (love) to knowledge (understanding), aesthetics (beauty) and finally self-actualization (maximizing potential), as proposed by Reed, Bergemann and Olson (1998). Maslow identified with the psychological aspects of learning. In a similar fashion, Erikson constructed eight stages of psychosocial development which also focus on socio-emotional development. Persons can either have a crisis or a success at each stage. The stages are as follows: trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame and doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation and integrity vs despair. Emotional attributes are added in the fourth stage, (industry vs inferiority ages 6 – 12 years) where children experience pleasure from “perseverance and productivity; neighborhood, school and peer interaction becomes increasingly important” Reed, Bergemann and Olson (1998, p. 295). It is at this stage of development that children begin to view themselves critically and compare themselves with others. Both Erikson and Maslow consider the effects of psychosocial events on the learner and that success/ failure at each stage help/ hinder success at subsequent stages. Students who experience difficulty at any stage may also have difficulties in the classroom since there is a psychology of education.
Chapter Four
Everyone of us has a story to tell. This story describes our experiences and how they have shaped our personalities, our outlook on life, our motivation, inherent abilities, or disabilities as the case may be, our strength of character and our will and ability to succeed at almost anything. At first glance at someone, we see the outcomes or the sum total of inherent traits coupled with their own interpretation of life’s experiences, we never see the situations that have played integral parts in shaping who they are. A careful scrutiny of it would, without question, allow us to ameliorate the ills in our lives.
The focal areas of this research are no different. This chapter describes the results of the examination of the students’ support systems, the quality of the instruction they received and their own preferences as it relates to reading. The students, their teachers (from the second grade to the fourth grade) and their parents were interviewed. The literacy specialist for Grade Four was observed and interviewed and the outcomes that were arising from the intervention strategy are presented here in the context of their stories. Creswell (2009) outlined how qualitative analyses are done – data collected are organized (which can be done through transcription) and then coded (or categorized) for thematic analysis. Having categorized (or coded) the data, themes (or categories) will emerge, from which descriptions and presentations are subsequently made (Creswell, 2009). In this study, the transcriptions were sorted and coded for common themes that emerged from responses. These are presented as sub themes below. Data from the observation logs were likewise coded for commonalities and then developed into themes that captured the essence of what was being said. For the outcomes that arose from the intervention, tables and charts were used to represent same. This was done to capture the main findings of this research design- action case study, to provide a comprehensive report. The three research questions were used as the major themes under which are sub themes which also emerged. The three major themes were: psychosocial experiences of students who struggle with literacy, stakeholders’ beliefs on the contributing factors to non-literacy at the focal primary school and the emerging outcomes from the reading intervention strategies on students who struggle with literacy in the focal school. The sub themes that emerged were - poverty, family background and schooling, healthy self-concept, disabilities and disorders, expectations, individualized attention, familial support, literacy encouraging environment, recognition for improvement, facilitator factor (X Factor - Caring), the power of one, best practices, alphabet knowledge, word list, reading exercises. Pseudonyms were used to maintain anonymity.
What are the psychosocial experiences of students who struggle with literacy?
Figure 4.1 Model representing Subject A
As illustrated above, this subject had different variables that affected his predisposition to literacy. Jermaine’s family was from a low socio economic status as evidenced in his presence on the PATH programme, the absence of required texts and the quality of the uniform he wore along with the community in which he resided. From observations, Jermaine displayed signs of low self-esteem in how he interacted with his peers and also his teacher. In addition to this, he was in the slowest group in a mainstream classroom with a teacher that obviously cared for her profession but did not utilize the requisite tools/ knowledge to address his literacy challenge. The X – factor of caring would have seen the teacher taking the extra step to address his literacy challenge is addressed. As it relates exposure to literature, there was an absence of texts that would stimulate interest in reading at home. All of these played an essential role in Jermaine’s academic performance.
Poverty, family background and schooling.
With the father being away from the home for months on end because of his job, some responsibility would now rest with the one most likely to carry it out successfully, Jermaine. He was from an inner city community within five minutes (walking distance) of the school’s locale. His deportment bore testimony of his socio economic status. His clothes were worn, and he didn’t have all his books neither gears for his Physical Education classes. He was also enrolled in the State’s PATH programme, which allowed him to receive lunch daily, at no cost to his family. Although he did not have all the stationery or texts that were required, Jermaine attended school regularly. There was a certain stigma attached to ‘PATH’ beneficiaries. The protocol was that at lunch time the teacher would call out to the ‘PATH students’ to form a line by her desk and collect their tickets. If this wasn’t enough, when they went to the lunch room they were to join a special line that other paying students did not join. For Jermaine this was undaunting, he had gone through this too many times before, it had now become second nature. Overt signs showed that such students accepted this aspect of their school life, however in Jermaine’s case this would have only added to an already negative view his teachers and peers held of him. Despite these odds, he maintained an interest in his work, and even through the difficulties, made efforts especially when attention was given to him. “I like Mathematics” he said. This was his favorite subject, he recalled his liking for the core Mathematical operations. This was indeed true as there were times during class when we were doing Mathematics lessons and when he was called to the board to solve problems he would exude an excitement that was rarely seen. Although he was reserved in class, in our sessions outside the class, some transformation seemed to occur. The non-participant child was now engaged, open to learning and correction. During our sessions this truth emerged- when an underperforming child feels as though his teacher believes in his ability, regardless of how minuscule, he is encouraged and puts more effort into his work. An essential attribute of a facilitator also emerged – the ability to inspire.
Although Jermaine was from a humble background, his mother was very supportive of him academically. Regrettably, her own educational standing was not potent enough to address his struggle with literacy,
Healthy Self Concept
From observations, there also seemed to be issues of self-confidence in the classroom. Students in the class are seated according to their ability, determined by the results they receive on their end of term tests. Jermaine was seated in the last group that performed the worst on tests. There was an unspoken but very powerful phenomenon as it relates to how students viewed themselves and what they thought teachers thought of them. It seemed evident in the way students spoke of and about each other and also in their interaction with their teacher. Because less was expected from the underperforming students, they adopted the ‘learned helplessness’ mentality. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, children perform at their full potential after all the other needs have been met and reach a stage of self-actualization (Reed, Bergemann and Olson, 1998). Based on observation and interaction, the subjects in this study did not attain the self-actualization level as they would have experienced challenges (which were not overcome) in the other stages which would have impeded their ability to perform optimally. In Erikson’s fourth stage of development, children either face the conflict of inferiority or the success of industry depending on the interplay between themselves and peers and their own productivity. The seating arrangement and accompanying treatment of the low achievers serves more to hinder self-esteem than encourage improved performance. In cases where a student’s emotional intelligence is not yet fully developed or equipped with the requisite tools to deal with such challenges as they face daily at school, academic achievement will also suffer.
Disabilities and disorders (undiagnosed, untreated)
Again, from further observations made, the quality of Jermaine’s work displayed signs of reading disorders. When copying work from the board, words were spelt incorrectly and some were completely omitted. He only realized his errors when it was called to his attention. Consistently, his work was untidy, incomplete and incorrect. There was no questioning why he was seated among the slowest students in the class. Jermaine’s mother relayed that he was recommended for a specialist visit, however, she wasn’t able to act on this recommendation. Regardless of this fact, there were covert indicators in support of the Ministry’s mantra that Jermaine can learn and would learn. Jermaine disclosed that he did see his siblings reading and he read with them sometimes and other times he played with his brother. “Sometimes when I reading my Bible I ask him to come help me. When I don’t remember the word, me ask him ‘what is this word again?”-Jermaine’s mother. This goes to show the value placed on the child by his mother, and also her educational prowess. “He had a brother and a sister that came here before him but, he seems to be the best out of them”. – Mrs. Lindsay (teacher of the slow learners’ class). This was enlightening, because for Jermaine to be considered the most capable academically in his family spoke to the state of his family’s intellectual standing. In the absence of a medical diagnosis and to the untrained eye, Jermaine may have been viewed as ‘dunce’, but there seems to have been a reading disorder at play, which was not catered for. According to Roth, Paul and Pierotti (2006), factors such as poverty, home literacy environment, and family history of language or literacy disabilities predispose a child to literacy challenges. Jermaine’s family appeared to have a history of low achievement and his literacy exposure at home and socio economic status did nothing to aid this predisposition. The experiences recounted by the teachers and Jermaine’s mother sketch a picture of his predispositions to literacy acquisition. Although he was among the slowest in his class, he was considerably the most promising student in his family. During our interview session, Jermaine’s mother noted that “Is him we a depend pon. When him father going away, him leave him phone with him, because him know him can take care of it.” Indeed, although to his mother Jermaine was very promising, if not the most promising academically, these views were not supported at school, in fact, it would be safe to say the views were polar opposites. In his class, he was seen as being among the non-achievers. This disparity in opinions could also contribute to the unsettled behavior that the subject displayed, falling somewhere in the middle of both opinions. Research by Lubliner (2004) shows the importance of literacy, especially for students in the upper levels of primary school noting that it is the means for acquiring knowledge across all the subject areas. For students that struggle with literacy, there will be serious challenges with their experience of school since it is necessary to stay abreast in classes. Students without this requisite skill feel frustrated, disengaged and may eventually lose interest in their own education. This may also manifest as antisocial behaviours if the child does not have an appropriate avenue to deal with his shortcomings as a student. In the same research referenced earlier, among the successes of the reading intervention programme was an increase in students’ esteem. There is always a sense of accomplishment and achievement when students have overcome a task. They are encouraged to strive and maintain such behaviour. This held true for Jermaine as I saw how pleased with himself he was whenever he answered correctly. Unequivocally, Jermaine possessed some capacity to read and perform well, however the faith that his family had in him was downplayed by the fact that this capacity paled in comparison to that of his fellow students at school. He was just not intellectually potent enough to be viewed favourably.
Figure 4.2 Classroom and family views of Subject A
The illustration above shows the disparity in opinions regarding Jermaine. On the one hand, he is dependable and promising to his family. On the other hand, he is underperforming and earns no respect in his class. This difference of opinions sheds some light in the unsettling behavior the subject displayed. Similarly, (Kirk and Kirk, 1976, pp. 255-256), as cited in Spafford and Grosser (1996, p. 5) extended the definition of learning disabilities to include disorders in language, speech, reading, and also the associated communication skills requisite for socialization. Both subjects were observed as having some awkwardness socializing, in part the reasons for which are because of their challenge with literacy and by extension, learning.
Khristina was a shy, soft spoken girl, seated in the penultimate slowest group in the class. Language Arts was her favourite subject. She was asked the reason for this, to which she responded “Me nuh know wha fe seh”. The interview with her was reflective of her general personality/ disposition of being timid, of few words. In keeping with her liking for Language Arts, Khristina said if left up to her she would choose a ‘reading book about the weather’. She has a baby brother that is three years old. She lived with her mother but occasionally visited her father and grandmother. Khristina only participated in class when forced. During these times, she exuded a lack of confidence in her ability to answer questions and timidity for the attention given. In our private sessions, the timidity was still present, albeit on a somewhat smaller scale. She would participate a little more, but still seemed very conscious of her inability or ignorance. Khristina had to be encouraged along constantly. She attended school regularly and was in possession of most books and P.E.gears. Notwithstanding this, she did not wear her gears every Thursday, as was requisite. This facilitated our sessions and also shed some insight into this subject’s background. Although she had the gears, adequate preparation wasn’t always made for her to wear them every Thursday.
There was one particular instance in which the homework Khristina submitted was clearly done by someone else. These words were written in her book “Please allow the child to write in her own book”. In addition to this, the work that was done was incorrect. This was not the first instance that a different handwriting was seen in her book. This also spoke of the quality and type of support she had at home. Previously cited research by Wasik et al (2006) revealed that pre literacy and language environment determines a child’s propensity to read and also that poorer students tend not to be exposed to adults who speak the official language and books in the home, (thereby aiding the non-exposure to the official language). This was true for both subjects as the quality of their homework bore testament of the literacy support they had at home. Even during the interviews with the parents, their best attempt to speak the official language had failed.
Khristina would often times be seen in class appearing to be totally aloof, lost to what was happening in the class. She gazed very frequently in class. Despite attempts to find out what was the reason for being in this state, nothing concrete was concluded. The assessment of a professional practitioner would have assisted.
Figure 4.3 Model representing Subject B
The illustration above depicts the dynamics of the female subject in this research which affected her literacy performance and academic performance by extension. Her home setting did not meet nor improve her literacy skills. Her mother was her main support academically and financially. As illustrated above, Khristina was mild mannered but short tempered and also displayed signs of a struggle with self-esteem (evidenced in her interaction with classmates and teacher).
Family Structure, personality, and educational outcomes
Khristina’s socioeconomic standing was not the worse among her peers. She was obviously cared for physically, however, her educational support had room for improvement. Although she received assistance with her homework and assignments, at the same time the quality of this help was not sufficient to realize any improvement in the subject’s academics. Khristina came from a matrifocal home in a residential community in Portmore. Her mother was the head of this household and there were no older siblings to support her. In a similar fashion to the way in which the male subject was viewed, Khristina was also viewed in like manner by her peers, due to her lack of academic performance. There were stark differences between both subjects: Khristina was more financially secure than Jermaine, but her academic performance and participation in and outside classes were lower than Jermaine’s. Jermaine also received considerable support at home and was encouraged to read, while this did not hold true for Khristina. During their socialization time (break for lunch) she interacted with her peers that sat close by her.
Expectations
As was aforementioned, there was an unspoken ‘learned helplessness’ at work in the class. Much wasn’t expected from the low achievers and so they were not prompted nor encouraged to challenge this status quo. During the time their teacher was on leave and a substitute sat in her place there were noticeable changes in some students’ behaviour. There was one underperforming student in particular that exemplified this. One day his former teacher was passing by the classroom and was startled when she saw her former underachieving student being congratulated for a job well done. She engaged the substitute teacher in a little debate as to whether or not he cheated/ copied from someone; she refused to believe that he could get anything right. This type of philosophy was also observed from the permanent class teacher. Based on the comments that were made, it seemed very clear that very little was expected from the more challenged set of learners. This held true for Khristina as well. She only participated when singled out and was always ignorant and oblivious to what was happening. It didn’t help that most times these students were incorrect. Notwithstanding this, there were overt attempts to include them in teaching, but during revision and assessment the slower ones always seemed left behind and were verbally scolded for it. Again, for students with low emotional intelligence or without a healthy concept of themselves, treating with this low expectation may translate to low performance.
Although the substitute teacher was not as strict as the other teachers she gained the respect of the students and also inspired them to perform better. This can easily be considered one of the most important teacher attributes. The ability to inspire students especially to the point that it leads to a noticeable change in their performance is an underscored but pivotally important aspect of teaching.
What do stakeholders believe are the contributing factors to non literacy at the focal primary school?
Individualized Attention
“Me tell him seh him need fe focus.” Jermaine’s mother disclosed what she believes hinders her child from learning and what she thinks the teacher can do to help him. When nothing is going on, she believes, the teacher should call her child and help him with reading. While this seemed a very plausible suggestion to address his challenge, at the same time it was also very impractical given the constraints on the teacher to complete her lessons while trying to maintain order in the class and to some extent differentiating teaching for her students. There was never a time when ‘nothing is going on in the class’. She disclosed that she was aware that there was a problem with his reading, however, this was not always the case. In grades one and two he was doing ok. It seemed he lost focus in grade 3 although she could not recall anything in particular that could be attributed to this change. Jermaine’s mother disclosed that he was recommended for a specialist visit to diagnose or assess his learning difficulty, however she did not get a chance to follow up on that recommendation.
Familial Support
Jermaine’s mother relayed that she warns her children to present their books where she could see them when she reached home. She normally gets home late in the evening and so to ensure she keeps abreast with what they are doing in school she uses this method. This begs the question as to how much she could help her children. Undeniably, this was a great effort and strategy, however, if there was no understanding of the work being done, then it hardly would have made sense. This effort nonetheless demonstrated that she cared for their education. She disclosed that she warns her children that “all their books must lay out so that me nuh haffi ask for them”, and if they failed to do this, a proper beating would be their fate. Jermaine also got help from his sister and aunt that lived nearby. According to Lambert (2010), literacy is influenced by the interplay among itself, language and culture and through understanding this we will be able to address our literacy challenges. A family’s sub culture shapes a child’s experience of and exposure to the official language, as children live what they learn. In the formative years of a child’s growth, inculcating values and morals is just as important as meeting literacy needs because it lays the foundation for their lifelong education. Had the subject experienced a strong positive literacy upbringing from home, there would have been a notable difference in current performance academically.
The experience of the female subject was completely different from that of the male. The only support she had on a day to day basis was her mother. Khristina’s mother was aware that her daughter was reading below her grade level, but could not pinpoint exactly when it started nor the origin of the problem. She did however disclose that some time ago she gave her a letter to write and she noticed that there was some difficulty in completing that task. Unfortunately, Khristina was never taken to any specialist for diagnosis.
Khristina’s mother was the main and constant support for her daughter. Her job saw her working at odd hours of the day. In terms of assistance with assignments, it was either done with her mother’s help or Khristina would do it on her own. This explained the reason that she would complete the work for her. She also noted that Khristina loved to play, so she has to be strict with her. She encourages her to read, as she loves reading herself. She also reads with her daughter and tells her to look for words in her dictionary. “She’s scared of me, that’s why she read”- Khristina’s mom noted. “I know she can do better. If she get help, like from extra class”. Even with this disclosure, Khristina was not enrolled in the paid nor free extra classes at school. Her mother believes that the way forward for her daughter was through extra lessons on the weekends. Both parents recognized the need for specialized instruction for their literacy challenged child. While this is undeniably true, they seemed to have somehow forgotten the importance of support at home, perhaps quality support describes it more accurately. According to Clark and Picton (2012), when children saw their parents reading they are encouraged to read/ view reading favourably. While the parents of both subjects were recorded as saying that they read, the effect was not shown in the subjects’ attitude towards reading. For them, reading signified challenges, frustration and misunderstanding.
Literacy Encouraging Environment
Both the home and school environment should encourage reading. Wasik et al (2006) showed that having conducive conditions to literacy at home is a significant pre-determinant of literacy, which is determined largely by family income or socioeconomic status. Said research also pointed out that poor children are already at a literacy disadvantage based on the language they learn from the adults around them. In the case of this study, the language used by the parents was their version of the official language, the dialect. Their children reproduced what they were exposed to. As previously mentioned, research findings were that encouragement from parents positively affected children’s perception of themselves as readers; and does not depend on the parent’s academic prowess. Herein lies another controversy, getting encouragement to read from parents aids reading/ literacy in children, however non exposure to the official language at home deters literacy attainment. On one hand parents’ use of the official language facilitates literacy and on the other hand their encouragement does. Based on the findings of this research, both are required to attain literacy. While both parents encouraged their children to read, they did not exemplify or practice the official language so that it could positively affect the subjects.
Recognition for Improvement
Regardless of how small the improvement in the child’s behaviour is, positive reinforcement must be included. Treating a child for improvements in performance and effort should be a part of our pedagogy. The recognition does not have to be expensive; it could be as simple as creating a chart of achievers and having a treat at the end of the month for them. Based on what the children like, these can be supplied to encourage them to perform. In this research just the fact that they were highlighted made a huge difference. It serves to celebrate any success made on the part of the student and encourage them to achieve even more. The subjects in this study were awarded with stars, verbal praise and very attractive erasers. In the literacy classroom there was a chart for the achievers. One boy in particular pointed out to me that his name was on the chart and how many stars he had received. He seemed especially proud of his achievement albeit, he was not the highest achiever. Other students joined the conversation and were not fearful to point out students that were low performers or who had lost their stars because of ill manners.
Facilitator Factor (X Factor - Caring)
What makes a teacher good, better, the best at what she does? Is it her innate ability, passion and love for the profession? Does it bear any personal significance to her as in the story of a phoenix that rose from the ashes, wanting to be that enabler for another child? Could it be that she sees herself in the eyes of the children? Whatever the reason behind choosing the profession, be it job security, opportunities, having a natural knack for teaching, being called of God to make a difference in the life of a child, the teacher must esteem her profession and must have an appreciation and love for the children she teaches. Can there be any real success in the absence of caring on the part of the teacher? Needless to say that teaching is a female dominated profession- we must consider how this affects the type of teaching that occurs in the classroom. It has been debated that females communicate more effectively than males and this may be a part of the reason that the profession consists mainly of females. Contrastingly though, while the students in the classroom represent a more balanced gender mix, the literacy challenged students are predominantly boys. Since females are supposedly better at communicating than males, we should not be having such a dilemma with literacy or would we need to inject more male teachers to reach males? Communication is an aspect of literacy and learning, as a matter of fact, literacy and all learning is done through communication. What might also help is a male literacy teacher for the boys that are in need. Again, it cannot be overemphasized that caring always finds a way so regardless of their strengths, weaknesses or gender, once a teacher cares enough it will incite them to research ways to reach their marginalized students.
Literacy Stimulating Class
“Reading is done from story books. Reading comprehension is done as a subject in and of itself. I have lesson plans for Reading Comprehension”. Mrs. Ivey – Literacy teacher. This classroom was different from all the other classrooms. The school had transformed the computer room into a room that was filled with charts, activities and adventures. “We do puppetry, so I will be the puppet and I give them clues and they have to spell the words. We also do puzzles, they have to guess what the words are. We use concept cards so I will have a word underlined and they have to tell me the part of speech, we play a lot of games. We play I spy, pin the tail on the donkey, etc.” Mrs. Ivey. The enthusiasm that emanated from her being was one that was rarely seen among her colleagues during both observation and interviews. Although her class was less than half the size of the other classes, she was just as busy as the other teachers. In fact, to get the interviews done, an offer was made to mark papers to compensate for the time utilized in our interview sessions. The ratio of girls: boys was also different, so much so that it was the opposite of the ratio for the other classes in the school. In her class the male: female ratio was 20:4. This meant that a female teacher over 50 years old was responsible for a male dominated class of literacy challenged students. She recounted the experience that led to her being one of the school’s literacy teachers. She was also completing her practicum when she met some children that had severe challenges with reading. So disappointing, but simultaneously inspiring was this rude awakening that it inspired the subject of her final paper. The shock and disbelief led her to do a research on reading problems and methods to ameliorate same. “We use the Children’s Own and we do the activities that are in it. I create my own puzzles and the children put in the words. You see we do a lot of desktop activities. When we were doing ‘recipes’ I told them to take the ingredients and we include it in the lesson”- Mrs. Ivey. Her pedagogy was entrenched in the progressivism/ constructivism school of thought which encourages student involvement. She also employed activities that increased phonological awareness, differentiated instruction, paired and whole class reading among others. The students were obviously engaged in the class and were recognized for their work, which served to further encourage them and provide healthy competitions among students. We do a lot of Phonics, a lot of desktop (hands on) activities. I use charts as teaching aids and we also do syllabication, letter sounds and sight words. I have a Learner’s Corner that’s where we do the puppetry and peep shows. The puppetry I use for storytelling; you should see how they are when I’m being the puppet! She noted with pride that her children were reading and would be sitting the Test. Her success was due in part, not just to the myriad of fun-filled and tactile activities students were actively engaged in, but also her use of numerous literacy aids and resources that are available but not utilized by all teachers. She mentioned that she uses the Informal Diagnostic Reading Inventory (IDRI) from the Ministry, as does the entire Grade Four. She also makes use of the National Literacy Programme and the Oral Reading Test (screening test). These help in formative assessment because of the constant screening that it facilitates, to effect change where it is most needed. What was also apparent through our conversing was that she genuinely cared for her students and wanted to see them reading and becoming literate.
Figure 4.4 Activities of the Literacy Enhancing Classroom
Based on the inerviews with the teachers, there are certain factors which lead to literacy
development in students, as shown in the diagram above. Students must find the literacy exercise
engaging, stimulating through activities, charts and other such aids. The teacher:pupil ratio must
be small.
Interesting to note is that none of the teachers interviewed seemed to have a recognized area of weakness in any particular subject. Ms. Thomas taught both Subjects A and B in the third grade. She had been teaching for thirty three years. “Seeing the children succeed later on in life” she noted was for her the most rewarding thing about teaching that makes it worthwhile. She also noted her stronger subjects were Mathematics, Language Arts and Reading, she had also conformed to the stance of the other teachers that there weren’t any subject areas that were her weakest. This was also significant to the researcher, it spoke to the teachers’ ability to objectively assess their own pedagogy for strengths and opportunities. In the absence of a reflective practice, there perpetually remains room for much growth.
Learning barriers
Mrs. Lindsay - a teacher of 8 years had managed to build a rapport with the students which was different from the other teachers, shared her views. In her years being in the profession, she observed that the presence of strong literacy support at home, with the time to invest in literacy challenged students is paramount to a child attaining literacy. As was revealed in this study, persons with poor educational background are the ones more likely to be available to assist and those who are capable are normally too busy to assist. The following was also noted from the other teachers interviewed.
The main contributors to a literacy struggle in students they attributed to:
the quality of the environment at home
lack of exposure to printed material
students not ready to enter primary school at Grade one and the struggle continues through the subsequent grades
the foundation to make them fit forprimary schooling is notpresent, coupled with the fact that students themselves are mentally immature.
From the teachers’ deduction, the readiness was lacking in grade one, and because each grade builds on the previous grade’s success, there is a perpetual gap in students’ learning, which only widens with promotion to each grade rather than the gap being closed.
The Power of One
When the grade supervisor was out on sick leave Mrs. Lindsay sat in for a few weeks. During this time that she was sitting in for the teacher, there was a marked change in the students’ behaviour. The students’ interaction during lessons had changed. Even the students from the slowest group were more interested and more open to participating. There was one child in particular that was described by his former teacher as ‘knowing nutten’ and although we didn’t see significant changes in his grades, there was a considerable difference in his attempts. His work was still incomplete, but he was improving in his effort. The obvious difference with this teacher was how she inspired the students and she saw them as equals. She had given an assignment and the students that completed it were called outside the classroom and they were a part of a group picture. In addition to this, I had started a rewards system in the class where stars were awarded to students for participation in class, completing homework and being well mannered. She promoted this reward system which in turn encouraged the students to perform better. At the end of each month, the students would be treated, and only those with stars could get treats. Another experience also exemplifies the difference the ‘X’ factor makes. There was another male student that sat in the first group, he was very quiet. One day she told them an analogy to encourage them to be the best they could be. A few days after that, this boy who had never spoken to her, simply brought her his book and showed her other similar quotes. For her this was alarming because she didn’t realize he paid such close attention to her and gave consideration to such things. There were other such experiences with other students. At Primary School Champs Mrs. Lindsay met two parents who were eager to meet her. One parent in particular anticipated meeting her because of all the good things she had heard about her. She asked her what she did with the students that had resulted in such a change. Yet another parent came to her to see who this new teacher was about whom her daughter spoke of frequently. She told Mrs. Lindsay that one day her daughter came to her confused. She told her that she wanted Mrs. Fowler to get better, but at the same time she did not want Mrs. Lindsay to leave. In just over a month, Mrs. Lindsay had managed to forge a relationship with the children that was so impacting that the effects played out in the improved performance in the students.
She also notes that it is important to be in a small classroom setting where students struggling get the focus and attention needed. It’s also important for students struggling with literacy to have access to age appropriate reading material and exposure to words.
Best Practices
Mrs. Lindsay was in charge of the slow class and shared her views of her practice. As it relates to the best methods/ teaching strategies to promote literacy in students, she believes it starts from reciting the alphabet and introducing students to books. “We would start with the simple ones, do an assessment and then migrate to more challenging books”, she noted. Additionally, students must be encouraged continuously because of the immense boost on their esteem and ability to even attempt certain tasks that are seemingly difficult. She incorporates picture reading, students follow on the pointer while others read, the use of sentence strips, and a word wall (where students have to place a word on the ‘Word Wall’, but before they can do so, they have to spell and pronounce the word) in her teaching. During my observations, the marked difference between Mrs. Lindsay and Mrs. Fowler was that Mrs. Lindsay allowed the students some leeway to express themselves. She had a softer approach, a noisier classroom, seemingly less class control, but an undeniably more engaged class.
Ms. Thomas likewise shared her ideas. To ameliorate the deficiencies in the system and in the liteacy challeneged, she recommended implementing a system whereby ‘at risk’ students receive special intervention from their second year of primary school. Additionally, the environment at home needs to be print friendly. Stating further that simultaneously, teachers that can’t teach reading should be taught how as the importance of this cannot be overemphasized. Students need testing because sometimes there are disabailities – mental, physical, speech and sight, which can easily go unnoticed to the untrained eye. She was of the philospshy that there must be differentiation in teaching these students. We can take it even further to incorporate Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences to find ways to teach effectively to these students with different intelligencies. Literacy can be taught through whichever intelligence they possess. In this way it is more engaging, meaningful and personal to the students.
Chapter 4 Continued
Teacher Slow Class- Analysis
A teacher of 8 years that had managed to build a rapport with the students which was different
from the other teachers. When the grade supervisor was out on sick leave she sat in for a few
weeks. During this time that she was sitting in for the teacher, there was a marked change in the
students’ behaviour. The students’ interaction during lessons had changed. Even the students
from the slowest group were more interested and open to participating. There was one child in
particular that was described by his former teacher as ‘knowing nutten’ and
Chapter 4 Continued
Teacher Slow Class- Analysis
A teacher of 8 years that had managed to build a rapport with the students which was different
from the other teachers. When the grade supervisor was out on sick leave she sat in for a few
weeks. During this time that she was sitting in for the teacher, there was a marked change in the
students’ behaviour. The students’ interaction during lessons had changed. Even the students
from the slowest group were more interested and open to participating. There was one child in
particular that was described by his former teacher as ‘knowing nutten’ and
Chapter 4 Continued
Teacher Slow Class- Analysis
A teacher of 8 years that had managed to build a rapport with the students which was different
from the other teachers. When the grade supervisor was out on sick leave she sat in for a few
weeks. During this time that she was sitting in for the teacher, there was a marked change in the
students’ behaviour. The students’ interaction during lessons had changed. Even the students
from the slowest group were more interested and open to participating. There was one child in
particular that was described by his former teacher as ‘knowing nutten’ and
Likewise, Ms. Thomas unequivocally stated that strategies need to be tailored to meet the needs of each student individually. It depends on the level of the child, a needs assessment should be done to understand exactly what the child’s problem area is, a single strategy does not work for all students. In her experience the most important determinants of how well a child reads trace back to poor parenting, the child exhibiting patterns from home, not being motivated or encouraged to excel. Clark and Picton, (2012) also found similar results that socioeconomic factors do not predict literacy outcome, but home support does. She notes that parents don’t show enough interest in their child’s education and don’t gear them enough towards reading. Interesting too was the fact that some parents were in denial that their children have a problem so they don’t do anything about it. From her observations, in some of these homes, no interest is shown in education, in its value and power. They won’t motivate their children and that is why the society is the way it is. Among the strategies to combat these challenges are having small spacious classrooms, using practical words in terms of sounds. Also, finding the child’s interest and creating an environment with material that is interesting.
To become literate
While each situation differs in its details, there are certain steps that, if taken, significantly improves literacy and academic performance.
Figure 4.5 Steps to Literacy
There are certain steps which must be taken to realize literacy in a classroom where there are persons struggling with literacy. The facilitator must have a vested interest in seeing her children literate this will incite the inclusion of activities that will excite the learners and also result in a reflective pedagogy. Undeniably, the reasons for non literacy in students are mutifaceted, however, the most important determinants are parental support, the teacher effect (to inculde quality of their education, the extent to which they are invested in the child’s improvement and their ability to inspire/ incite interest in their students) and having an environment that encourages literacy at home. To a lesser degree, the philosophy of the school whereby literacy challenged students are withdrawn from mainstream classes is of critical importance. Provision must be made more so for these students than even those that are without this challenge.It is almost impossible for a child with literacy challenges to function effectively in a classroom with mixed abilities. When they are placed in a learning environment with students or similar challenges the instruction will be more beneficial because it addresses their literacy need.
What are the emerging outcomes from the reading intervention strategies on students who struggle with literacy in the focal school?
Informal Diagnostic Reading Inventory
For the purpose of this research I modified the inventory to suit the needs of the subjects. At the beginning of the intervention, both subjects were assessed on their alphabet knowledge which also assessed their phonemic awareness. Following this we went through some sight words from their Phonics text book and other such words that were below their grade level. When this session was complete, we then went through a short paragraph with words below the Grade Four level. This was in contrast to the Ministry’s Reading Inventory. The Inventory tests children’s alphabet knowledge first and then instructs them to read sentences. Based on the number of errors made or how well they perform on the screening sentences, the appropriate word list is then chosen to determine the grade level at which the child is reading. In my intervention however, after their alphabet knowledge was tested, I moved to the word list I created to judge the sentences they would have read next.
Alphabet Knowledge
I tested their alphabet knowledge by asking each subject to spell a complex word they knew. When this seemed challenging to the female subject, I went through a phonetic exercise in which I asked them to sound each letter of the alphabet. While the male student was able to sound all the letters, the female subject had difficulty completing this task. She had to get assistance to finish this activity. The remainder of the session was used to sound letters and identify words with the beginning sound of each letter of the alphabet. It was important to achieve success in this exercise because it laid the foundation for the subsequent interventions. Lubliner (2004), in her research noted a stark difference between beginning and adept readers. The focus of the former is text recognition, while the focus of the latter is decoding written text. Because of the level at which the subjects were reading, much of the emphasis was on identifying the words, and a smaller portion on comprehension. As supported by the literature in this paper, phonemic awareness is a prerequisite foundation for reading and learning. From this session it was evident that the female subject wasn’t sufficiently able to spell the ‘big word’ that she was asked because of her inability to manipulate letter sounds. It was logical to have more such exercises to build on phonemic awareness than on decoding text.
Table 4.5 Responses for Alphabet Knowledge
KhristinaJermaine
Letter
Letter Names
Letter Sounds
Letter
Letter Names
Letter Sounds
P
√
√
p
√
√
G
√
√
g
√
√
A
√
√
a
√
√
C
√
√
c
√
√
B
√
√
b
√
√
M
√
√
m
√
√
V
√
√
v
√
√
X
√
0
x
√
0
S
√
√
s
√
√
D
√
√
d
√
√
I
√
0
i
√
0
O
√
√
o
√
√
N
√
√
n
√
√
T
√
√
t
√
√
Z
√
√
z
√
√
W
√
√
w
√
√
L
√
√
l
√
√
K
√
√
k
√
√
Y
√
0
y
√
√
E
√
√
e
√
√
R
√
√
r
√
√
H
√
√
H
√
√
F
√
√
F
√
√
U
√
0
U
√
0
J
√
√
J
√
√
Q
√
0
Q
√
√
Score
26/26
21/26
Score
26/26
23/26
Both Jermaine and Khristina achieved a perfect score in recognizing the names of the letters of the alphabet. On the other hand, their phoenemic awareness of the alphabet revealed a disparity. while Khristina had difficulty sounding five letters of the alplabet.
Word List
In the next session with the students, they were given an exercise on the ‘Hard C’ sound. Their Phonics text was consulted for material appropriate for that grade level alongside the Ministry’s IDRI. Seeing that they were already reading below their grade level, the words on the list were reflective of this. The subjects were introduced to the sound of ‘hard C’ and then asked to identify some words that began with the sound. I specifically began with the male subject to lessen the pressure on the female participant. Jermaine, with some effort, was able to correctly identify and sound two such words. Khristina experienced some amount of challenge in identfying words with that beginning sound, but was also successful in this activity. After the attempts were made to identify 2 words with the Hard ‘C’ beginning sound, we went on to the word list. The following words- can, cap, car, cat cup, cake, cart, come, cold, cook, corn, crop, camel, cover and carrot were used for instruction. A success was recorded if the student could identify at least 2 words with the correct beginning sound, however the activity was not timed. The words on the list above were given to the students to pronounce. No indictaion was made if they were wrong or right. At the end of the activity, the attempts were scored as follows: of the fifteen words, if 3 or more were mispronunced or could not be pronunced at all, then it would have been so recorded. The subject would have failed the test.
Figure 4.5 Responses for the Word List
Khristina
Jermaine
Word
Score
Word
Score
Can
+
Can
+
Cap
+
Cap
+
Car
+
Car
+
Cat
+
Cat
+
Cup
+
Cup
+
Cake
+
Cake
+
Cart
+
Cart
+
Come
0
Come
+
Cold
+
Cold
+
Cook
+
Cook
+
Corn
+
Corn
+
Crop
+
Crop
+
Camel
0
Camel
0
Cover
+
Cover
+
Carrot
0
Carrot
+
Score
12 /15
Score
14/15
As seen above, none of the subjects achieved a perfect score, however, the results showed an understanding of sight words with the Hard “C” beginning sound. According to the Ministry’s Inventory, if a student receives a score of twelve or more out of fifteen, then that would be seen as a passing grade. For this exercise, both subjects were successful. The difficulty index was then increased to offer a challenge to the students and to determine the sucesses of the program, if any.
Figure 4.6 Responses for second word list
Khristina
Jermaine
Word
Score
Word
Score
Worm
+
Worm
+
Road
+
Road
+
Gather
0
Gather
0
Like
+
Like
+
Water
0
Water
+
Play
+
Play
+
Shop
+
Shop
+
From
+
From
+
Dress
+
Dress
0
Caring
0
Caring
+
Skirt
0
Skirt
+
Bold
+
Bold
+
Around
0
Around
0
Never
+
Never
+
Before
+
Before
+
Score
10/ 15
Score
12/ 15
For both students, the performance on the first set of words was better than the second set. The first set comprised mainly one syllable sight words, while the second set was a little more difficult. The intensity/ difficulty index on the next set of words was increased to test the subjects’ limits.
Reading Exercises
Heckleman devised the Neurological Impress Method to assist students with reading. It involves the facilitator and the challenged reader reading together. For this research, the facilitator read at a pace deemed apposite, not too fast neither too slow. Owing to the fact that these students were already reading below their grade level, the word list would have to be below grade four or with the simplest set of words for grade four. In our sessions, we read aloud the following passage, pointing on each word as they were called. The Ministry’s Inventory would have seen the subjects reading on their own, however, based on the duration of the research, it was more beneficial to the subjects to incorporate the Neurological Impress Method.
“Kevin loves to read mystery books. He reads mystery books because he likes to try to solve the mystery himself before he gets to the end. Solving puzzles is like solving mysteries, so he likes working on puzzles too. He also likes solving problems. Kevin can usually solve any mystery, puzzle or problem.” (Excerpt from The Solver). I had to decrease my pace of reading to match the students’. I pointed on each word while they pronounced it. For the more challenging words, I broke it up into syllables and allowed them to sound the letters. This exercise was time consuming, however it showed if students were just calling words or if there was any indication that they understood what they read. While this exercise was not used to assess comprehension skills as it does in the Ministry’s Reading Inventory, it was used to assess how comfortable the subjects were with words and how they interacted with same. Although the pace was below the average grade four student’s pace, the students did not display signs of excessive frustration. This was important in changing the way they perceived of reading and in boosting their self confidence in the reading process as well.
The results of this intervention produced salient findings summarised this way:
1. Underperforming students (to include those that struggle with literacy) are not viewed in the same way as average or top performing students. This has a twofold negative effect on the students and their learning. They are often demeaned by teachers as well as students and constantly reminded of their shortcomings as students.
2. The educational and socioeconomic level of parents influences their children’s predisposition to literacy. This is an interesting interplay because education level weighs heavily on socieconomic status.
3. When children are encouraged to read from parents, they have a better attitude towards reading. These chances even increase when parents read with their children.
4. When teachers sit with struggling children, or otherwise show them that they care about their success, they are more likely to improve their attempts to perform.
5. The presence of a literacy encouraging enviroment at home and school significantly and positively affects a child’s literacy standing.
6. The teacher variable is second in importance to the home variable only. The quality of the pedagody (not the qualification), the ability to inspire a child, interest in research and development is paramount in having a rich and fulfilling teaching/ learning experience.
7. Students struggling with literacy perform better in smaller classes with a focus on raising literacy levels
Chapter Five
Literacy is a basic human right that should be enjoyed by all. While definitions abound for the term, its importance and worth are undeniable and absolute across genders, space, time and strata in society. In the absence of functional literacy, anti-social/ disruptive behaviours are common and such persons may experience difficulty finding their place in society. This study was conducted with the aim of addressing the problem that existed and to devise a strategy to intercept and ameliorate any future occurrences. The focus was to explore the psychosocial experiences of two Grade four students who struggle with literacy; to determine the reasons for non-literacy at the focal primary school and the emerging outcomes from the reading intervention strategies on the students under study. An action case study was deemed the best type of qualitative study to explore the problem identified above. The data were subsequently organized and analyzed from which the following emerged: The philosophy of the school and teacher will aid/ hinder the achievement of literate pupils. Students struggling with literacy are allowed to remain in mainstream classes in which there is no special inclusion of exercises/ activities for them. A special literacy class with the use of literacy aids is essential to improve literacy. As purported by Sanacore (2004), when teachers understand and care for their students, the end result is better academic performance and emotional stability. As revealed by the teachers in the study, the smaller the class size, the more likely the struggler’s needs will be met. Children from poverty-stricken families are more susceptible to illiteracy because of the language they are exposed to and inadequate exposure to print, according to the findings of Wasik, Bond and Hindman, (2006). Both subjects in the study were of a low socioeconomic status and the accompanying lack of proper language usage was evident. In addition to the lack they face from being poor, they are plunged to further educational vulnerability. Such children must receive directed counselling empowering them to refute the status quo and encourage them to achieve despite the odds. There are many prominent figures in our society that have defied the odds and have risen to the ranks of power and influence.
There are many students in mainstream classrooms whose needs are not being met because of undetected disabilities. Spafford (1996) noted that poor self-image, study habits, test performance and challenges with reading, math, memory, hyperactivity and inattention, among others are symptoms of dyslexia. These students also experience challenges with communicating skills for socialization as well, according to Spafford and Grosser (1996). To the untrained eye, these students are seen as rude, disruptive or ‘dunce’, however, they are merely children with undiagnosed and untreated disorders.
Some literacy challenged students in the special literacy class performed better than students with the same struggle in mainstream classrooms. Underperforming students are not viewed in the same way as average or top performing students. This has a twofold negative effect on the students and their learning. Poor quality of work is expected and this is what is produced. They are often demeaned by teachers as well as students and constantly reminded of their shortcomings as students. Essentially, the psychosocial experiences of students that struggle with literacy is largely negative, except in cases where they are surrounded by students of similar ability or with similar challenges. They experience challenges with self-esteem/ self-efficacy, emotional intelligence, being labelled in a demeaning manner and subsequently are treated that way. They are often misunderstood, undiagnosed and overlooked.
The research unearthed a few salient factors that contributed to the non-literacy at the school. The presence of a literacy encouraging enviroment at home and school significantly and positively affects a child’s literacy standing. There are many instances in which uneducated parents turn out exceptional students. Indeed in this research, the better performer was the male, and the support he received at home was commendable, notwithstanding that the quality of the support was poor. As Clark and Picton (2012) revealed, parental encouragement to read facilitates children seeing themselves as readers and viewed it favourably. The presence and quality of support at home improves or hinders children’s literacy development. Hayes (2006) also noted that frequent exposure to stories and books increases literacy and it is critical for this to be done between ages 0 – 8 years. It can then be deduced that anything after this age is remedial because the requisite foundation was not laid. In addition to this, a home environment that encourages reading, regardless of the education level of the caregiver, improves student reading. Quite paradoxically, the socioeconomic level from which a child comes also determines literacy levels because it influences the language used. Similarly, the presence of learning barriers (be it undiagnosed and untreated disorders or medical conditions), being misplaced in a classroom enhance the struggle with literacy.
Teachers play an intricate role in the life of a student. The quality of their teaching and care for their students improve learning, not their level of qualification. Encouragement from teachers/ being commended for a job well done enhances students’ self-esteem and also encourages them to perform even better. Students appreciate being highlighted and rewarded. Similarly, when teachers sit with struggling children, or otherwise show them that they care about their success, they are more likely to improve their attempts to perform. The teacher variable is second in importance to the home variable only. The quality of the pedagody (not the qualification), the ability to inspire a child, interest in research and development is paramount in having a rich and fulfilling teaching/ learning experience.
Emerging from the intervention were noteworthy points. Students perform better when more is expected of them. Actvities to assess or improve phonological awareness are the basic foundation for literacy acqusition. When this skill has been aquired, a series of activities for word recognition should follow. Indiiualized attention is also a precursor for those with severe struggles, not only will their literacy level improve, but their self efficacy and esteem will likewise improve.
Recommendations
In light of the foregoing, the following suggestions have been made to achieve a literate primary school population. There are several factors that may have gone overlooked, but which have paramount importance on the state of literacy nationally. If the aim of education is to make a literate and informed public because every child can and must learn, where this is not achieved the Ministry and all entities involved in this process have failed to fiufill their mandate. The implications of a non literate or partially literate public are too grave not to take a stronger approach to eradicate this or treat as a ‘pandemic communicable disease’. Notwithstanding the fact that each student has a different area of strength and interest, teachers must be trained towards finding students’ strengths and capitalising on such knlowledge. They should all be likewise trained in special education to possess the tools to identify disorders in the classroom and report accordingly.
Mandatory transfer of students to a special literacy class, once they are reading below the level appropriate for their age. Students that are struggling should not be allowed in mainstream classrooms. Parental involvement should also be cumpolsory for students that are underperforming. On the whole, one can garner better results from someone else if there is trust relationship present. I hasten to say that teachers should implement a ‘get to know your student’ idea whereby she sits with especially the slower students during lunch or calls them to her table, just becoming more familiar, not necessarily instructing them, but to decrease the distance created between them through lack of understanding. Similarly forging a relationship with parent/ caregiver will only enhance this bridging of a gap between student and teacher. Based on my research findings, parents are more willing to become involved when the teacher recognizes that their child has potential and special care and attention given to them.
Teachers should always reflect on the outcomes and process of teaching their lessons. In this way, oversights will not be missed. As an introductory activity to any lesson, the teacher can make a chart/ graph with the students’ interests and incorporate it each week to make the lesson more relatable and meaningful to students. Gardener’s multiple intelligence theory can be a useful tool in guiding such pedagogy. Currently, most teaching and assessment are done in the verbal/ linguistic intelligence. Innovative ways to assess learning in ways commensurate to the different intelligence should be sought so as to fairly assess all students of differing intelligences.
References
Knobel, M., (1999). Everyday Literacies: Students, Discourse and Social Practice (80) Lang
Publishing: New York.
Liddicoat, A., (2007). Language Planning and Policy: Issues in Language Planning and Literacy
Cromwell Press: Britain.
UNESCO. (2014). Quality Education Needs Qualified Teachers
Retrieved from http://en.unesco.org/news/quality-education-needs-qualified-teachers
Rohrs, H., (1999). Teacher Training: A basic Requirement for the internal reform of the
Educational system. Education (60).
Christie, P. (2010). Caribbean Language: Perspectives in the Caribbean Journal of Education
Caribbean Journal of Education: Special Issue Caribbean Journal of Education 35th
anniversary vol (32) 1.
Craig, D., (1969). An experiment in Teaching English in the Caribbean Prebendal House:
London.
Davis, B.G., (2009) Tools for teaching 2nd ed. Jossey- Bass: San Francisco
Decusati Porter, C. , & Johnson, J., (2004) Parents as Classroom Volunteers and Kindergarten
Students’ Emergent Reading Skills. (97) 4. The Journal of Educational Research.
Dunn, S. (2005). Philosophical Foundations of Education: Connecting Philosophy to theory and
Practice. Pearson: New Jersey.
Hayes, D. (2006). Primary Education: the key concepts. Routledge: Oxon.
Jarvis, P., (2009) The Routledge International Handbook of Lifelong Learning. Routledge: London
and New York.
Lambert C. (2010) Literacy Perspectives in the Caribbean: Imperatives for Research and Practice
Caribbean Journal of Education (32) 1.
Lubliner S. (2004) Help for Struggling upper- grade elementary readers. The Reading Teacher
: A Journal of the International Reading Association. Vol 57 #5.
Reed, A., Bergemann, V., and Olson, M., In the classroom: an introduction to education 3rd ed
McGraw- Hill: Boston.
Ruddell, R., Rapp Rudell M. and Singer H. (1994) Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading
4th ed. International Reading Association: Newark.
Sanacore J. (2004) Genuine caring and literacy learning for African American children. The
Reading Teacher: A Journal of the International Reading Association vol 57 # 8
Wasik Bond and Hyman. 2006 The Effects of a Language and Literacy Intervention on Head
Start etc…..
Jamaica Gleaner (2010) Bilingual Education Yields Better Results. Retrieved from
http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/-/arts/arts3.html
Robinson C. (2014) English Lessons for Jamaica, The Jamaica Observer Retrieved from:
http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/English-lessons-for-Jamaica_-
The Jamaican Language Unit, the University of the West Indies Mona. Bilingual Education
Project. Retrieved from: http://www.mona.uwi.edu/Dllp/jlu/projects/index.htm
Reutzel, D.R., Jones C., Fawson, P., & Smith J., (2008). Scaffolded Silent Reading: A
Complement to Guided Repeated Oral Reading That Works! The Reading Teacher:
A Journal of Research- Based Classroom Practice, 62 (3), 194-206.
References
Knobel, M., (1999). Everyday Literacies: Students, Discourse and Social Practice (80) Lang
Publishing: New York.
Liddicoat, A., (2007). Language Planning and Policy: Issues in Language Planning and Literacy
Cromwell Press: Britain.
UNESCO. (2014). Quality Education Needs Qualified Teachers
Retrieved from http://en.unesco.org/news/quality-education-needs-qualified-teachers
Rohrs, H., (1999). Teacher Training: A basic Requirement for the internal reform of the
Educational system. Education (60).
Christie, P. (2010). Caribbean Language: Perspectives in the Caribbean Journal of Education
Caribbean Journal of Education: Special Issue Caribbean Journal of Education 35th
anniversary vol (32) 1.
Craig, D., (1969). An experiment in Teaching English in the Caribbean Prebendal House:
London.
Davis, B.G., (2009) Tools for teaching 2nd ed. Jossey- Bass: San Francisco
Decusati Porter, C. , & Johnson, J., (2004) Parents as Classroom Volunteers and Kindergarten
Students’ Emergent Reading Skills. (97) 4. The Journal of Educational Research.
Dunn, S. (2005). Philosophical Foundations of Education: Connecting Philosophy to theory and
Practice. Pearson: New Jersey.
Hayes, D. (2006). Primary Education: the key concepts. Routledge: Oxon.
Jarvis, P., (2009) The Routledge International Handbook of Lifelong Learning. Routledge: London
and New York.
Lambert C. (2010) Literacy Perspectives in the Caribbean: Imperatives for Research and Practice
Caribbean Journal of Education (32) 1.
Lubliner S. (2004) Help for Struggling upper- grade elementary readers. The Reading Teacher
: A Journal of the International Reading Association. Vol 57 #5.
Reed, A., Bergemann, V., and Olson, M., In the classroom: an introduction to education 3rd ed
McGraw- Hill: Boston.
Ruddell, R., Rapp Rudell M. and Singer H. (1994) Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading
4th ed. International Reading Association: Newark.
Sanacore J. (2004) Genuine caring and literacy learning for African American children. The
Reading Teacher: A Journal of the International Reading Association vol 57 # 8
Wasik Bond and Hyman. 2006 The Effects of a Language and Literacy Intervention on Head
Start etc…..
Jamaica Gleaner (2010) Bilingual Education Yields Better Results. Retrieved from
http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/-/arts/arts3.html
Robinson C. (2014) English Lessons for Jamaica, The Jamaica Observer Retrieved from:
http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/English-lessons-for-Jamaica_-
The Jamaican Language Unit, the University of the West Indies Mona. Bilingual Education
Project. Retrieved from: http://www.mona.uwi.edu/Dllp/jlu/projects/index.htm
Reutzel, D.R., Jones C., Fawson, P., & Smith J., (2008). Scaffolded Silent Reading: A
Complement to Guided Repeated Oral Reading That Works! The Reading Teacher:
A Journal of Research- Based Classroom Practice, 62 (3), 194-206.