Jonathan Nyarko Ocran

CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY IN AFRICA – A REVIEW JONATHAN NYARKO OCRAN TEMA, GHANA 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 1.Chapter One – Livestock species, numbers and their distribution in agroclimatic zone ofAfrica………………………………………………………………….……………..5 2.Chapter Two - Major livestock production systems in Africa……………………..11 3.Chapter Three - Animal Feeds, Feeding and Nutrition………………………………18 4.Chapter Four – Animal Genetics and Breeding………………………………………..…27 5.Chapter Five – Animal Diseases, Prevention, Control and Animal Health…..32 6.Chapter Six – Livestock and Anti-microbial Resistance……………………………….39 7.Chapter Seven – Water requirements, watering frequency and Heat Stress In Livestock in Africa………………………………………………………………………………….44 8.Chapter Eight – Livestock housing and Equipment…………………………………….50 9.Chapter Nine – Husbandry and Management Practices……………………………..55 10.Chapter Ten – Livestock Input Supply and Services…………………………………..60 11.Chapter Eleven – Livestock slaughtering and Processing…………………………..65 12. Chapter Twelve – Climate Change and Livestock Production……………………70 13. Chapter Thirteen – Livestock Sustainability with respect to the Environment…………………..……………………………………………………………………………..75 14. Chapter Fourteen- Livestock Marketing and Trade…………………………………..81 15. Chapter Fifteen – Index-based Livestock Insurance………………………………….86 16. Chapter Sixteen – Provision of credit, financing and Investments in the Livestock industry in Africa………………………………………………………………………91 17. Chapter Seventeen –Livestock Research, Extension and Advisory Services……………………………………………………………………………………………………96 18. Chapter Eighteen – Conventional meat and Cultured Meat……………………102 19. Chapter Nineteen – Artificial Intelligence, Robotics and Internet of Things in livestock production……………………………………………………………………..106 2 20. Chapter Twenty – Livestock Production and Nanotechnology………………..110 21. Chapter Twenty-One – Conclusion…………………………………………………………114 3 PREFACE Livestock is a major contributor to the African economy, providing food, income, and employment for millions of people. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the livestock sector contributed 13.6% of the agricultural GDP in Africa in 2021. This represents a slight increase from the 13.4% contribution in 2020. The livestock sector also employed 145 million people in Africa in 2021, up from 143 million people in 2020. In some of the predominantly livestock producing countries, contribution of livestock to agricultural GDP is above 80 percent. Livestock products are also a major source of export earnings for Africa, with exports valued at $15 billion in 2019. However, the livestock industry is bedeviled with a number of challenges, including climate change, disease, poor infrastructure and lack of investments. This book provides an overview of contemporary developments in the livestock industry in Africa. It covers a wide range of topics, including: Livestock population and distribution, Livestock production systems, Animal feed and nutrition, Animal genetics and breeding, Animal diseases, prevention and control, Anti-microbial resistance, Water requirements and heat stress, Livestock housing and equipment, Husbandry and management practices, Livestock input supply, Livestock slaughtering and processing, Climate change, Sustainable livestock, Livestock marketing and trade, Index-based insurance, Credit, financing and investments, Livestock research and extension, Cultured meat, the application of new technologies such as artificial intelligence, robotics, Internet of Things (IoT) and nanotechnology. The book is intended for a wide audience, including policymakers, researchers, extension workers, livestock producers, and students. It is a valuable resource for anyone who is interested in learning more about the livestock industry in Africa. With the right support, the livestock industry can play a major role in reducing poverty and hunger in Africa. I wish you an enjoyable reading Jonathan Nyarko Ocran Tema, Ghana June, 2023 4 CHAPTER ONE LIVESTOCK SPECIES, NUMBERS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES OF AFRICA Africa is well endowed with massive livestock resources and livestock production can be done in most parts of the continent. If these resources are equitably harnessed, protein deficiency in our diets should be a thing of the past. The population of Africa is projected to reach 2.489 billion by 2050 (Statista, 2023) from the current population of 1.434 billion in 2023 (Worldometer, 2023). This means that our livestock production needs to increase massively to meet the protein requirements of Africa’s population in the next two to three decades from now. Africa has five agro-climatic zones and different types of animals can be reared in them. These agro-climatic zones offer different and unique climatic and ecological systems for livestock production and they are Humid, Sub-humid, Arid, Semi-Arid and the Highlands zones. The humid zone is characterized by high rainfall and abundant vegetation. This makes it ideal for raising a variety of livestock, including cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and chickens. Cattle are the most common livestock in the humid zone and they are used for milk and milk production as well as for draught power. Sheep and goats are also common and are used for meat, wool and milk production. Pigs are less common but can be reared for meat. Chickens are also very common and they are raised for eggs and meat. The sub-humid zone is characterized by a more moderate climate than the humid zone. This makes it 5 suitable for raising a similar range of livestock but in smaller numbers. Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and chicken are all raised in the sub-humid zone but they are not as common as in the humid zone. The arid zone is characterized by low rainfall and sparse vegetation. This makes it difficult to raise livestock but some animals are able to survive in this harsh environment. Goats are common in this zone and they are reared for milk and meat. Sheep and cattle are less common but are raised in some areas. Chickens are also reared in some areas. The semiarid zone is characterized by a more moderate climate than the arid zone. This makes it more suitable for raising livestock. Cattle, goats and sheep as well as chicken are all raised in this zone. The highlands are characterized by high altitudes and cool temperatures. This makes it suitable for raising a variety of livestock, including cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and chickens. Cattle are the most common livestock in the highlands and they are used for milk, meat and draught power. Pigs are less common but they are raised for meat. Chickens are very common and they are raised for eggs and meat. Africa’s livestock sector contributes between 30 and 80 percent to Agricultural GDP of the continent. However, in some of them predominantly livestock producing countries, livestock contribution to GDP is relatively higher. For example, livestock contributes 85 percent to Somalia’s GDP, 82 percent to Djibouti’s GDP and 47 percent to Ethiopia’s GDP (Montpellier Panel Report, 2020). 6 The estimated cattle population in Africa was 370 million in 2020 (Statista, 2022), with Ethiopia being the African country with the highest population of cattle, amounting to 65 million (Central Statistics Agency, 2020). The majority of cattle can be found in Eastern and Southern Africa, with smaller populations in Western and Central Africa. Cattle are an important source of milk, meat and draught power to many African farmers. The class of cattle are calves, which are young cattle that are less than one-year old. The meat of calves called veal is tender and is a delicacy to some livestock consumers. Veal production is prominent in South Africa. Heifers are female cattle that have not yet had their first calf. Cows are female cattle that have had at least their first calf. Bulls are male cattle that are used for breeding, while steers are castrated male cattle. Cattle are castrated to improve the marbling and tenderness of the finished beef. Lactating cows are given high energy diets to produce more milk, which collected and sold. There are an estimated 420 million sheep in Africa (Statista, 2022). Like cattle, the majority of sheep are found in Eastern and Southern Africa, with smaller populations in Western and Central Africa. Sheep are an important source of meat and wool for many African farmers. The class of sheep include lambs, Ewes, sheep, rams and castrated rams. Lambs are young sheep that are less than one-year-old, while ewes are female sheep that have not yet had their first lamb. Rams are male sheep that are used for breeding purposes. Castrated rams are male sheep that have been castrated to enhance their weight gain and tenderness of their mutton. The breakdown of the class of sheep is as follows: 7 Class of Sheep Sheep Lambs Ewes Sheep Rams Castrated rams Source: Statista (2022) Population 420 billion 168 million 172 million 80 million 50 million 40 million The population of goats in Africa is estimated to be 490 million. Again, the majority of goats are found in Eastern and Southern Africa, with smaller populations in Western and Central. Perhaps, it is pertinent to point out that most of the livestock animals in Eastern and Southern Africa can be found in the arid and semi-arid agro-climatic zones of Africa. These zones are good grasslands that support livestock production. Goats are an important source of meat and milk for many African countries. The class of goats are kids, nannies, goats, billies and castrated billies. Kids are young goats that are less than one-year-old. Nannies are female sheep that have not yet had their first lamb. Goats are female sheep that have had at least one lamb, while Rams are male sheep that are used for breeding. Castrated Billies are male goats that have been castrated. Find below the population of each class of goats Class of Goats Goats Kids Nannies Goats Billies Population 490 million 245 million 55million 100 million 50 million 8 Castrated billies Source: Statista (2022) 40 million There are an estimated 100 million pigs in Africa (Statista, 2022), which can be found in Western and Central Regions of Africa. These areas consist of mainly humid and sub-humid agro-climatic zones that support the cultivation of maize and soybean, key feed ingredients for pig production. The class of pigs include piglet, sucklers, weaners, grower pigs, finisher pigs, sows and boars. Piglets are young pigs that are less than one-month-old, while Sucklers are piglets that are still nursing from their mothers. Weaners are piglets that have been weaned from their mothers, Grower pigs are pigs between the ages of 6 and 12 months old, while Finisher pigs are pigs between the ages of 12 and 18 months old. Sows are female pigs that are used for breeding, while boars are male pigs used for breeding. Pigs can also be castrated to remove the boar odor of the meat of boars. However, in recent times animal welfare activists have been advocating for castration to be stopped on livestock farms for the simple reason that it is cruel and painful to animals. The break-down of the class of pigs is as follows: Class of Pigs Pigs Piglets Sucklers Weaners Grower pigs Finisher pigs Sows Population 100 million 30 million 10 million 15 million 20 million 15 million 40 million 9 Boars Source: Statista (2022) 10 million According to Statista (2022) the estimated chicken population in Africa is 2.1 billion. Chicken are found all over Africa and are an important source of eggs and meat for many African families. South Africa is the largest producer of chicken in Africa (Montpellier Panel Report, 2020). The class of chicken include chicks, pullets, hens, broilers, layers, hens and roosters. Chicks are young chicken that are between the age of day-old to less than one month old. Pullets are female chicken that are between the age of 1 to 6 months old. Broilers are solely meat-producing chicken, which are sold when the reach the market weight of 2kg or more. Layers are egg laying hens and roosters are male chickens. Generally, the population of livestock animals and chickens has been growing exponentially in Africa to meet the increasing demand for livestock products. It has been established that as income of Africans increases, their demand for livestock-based products also grows accordingly. The linkage of the consumption of livestock products to prosperity of people is a universal phenomenon that has been observed in all developing countries in Africa and Asia. 10 CHAPTER TWO MAJOR LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN AFRICA Different production systems are used to rear livestock animals in Africa. Some of the production systems can be deemed traditional or even primitive, while others can be described as modern. Some of the production system are also simple, cheap to operate and small in size, while others are complex, capital-intensive and large. Livestock production systems in Africa include Mixed crop-livestock production system, Rearing of livestock under tree crop plantations in Africa, Backyard or village or traditional production system, Semi-intensive production system, Intensive and commercial production systems, Transhumant production system, Pure Nomadic or Pastoralist production system, Urban and Periurban livestock production system, Commercial fattening or feedlot production system, Calf or veal production system, precision production system, and organic livestock production system. A mixed crop-livestock production system is a type of farming system in which livestock are raised alongside crops. This type of production system is practiced in many parts of Africa. Under this system, livestock produce manure which fertilizes the crops and livestock in turn feeds on the crop residues. Livestock also help in controlling weeds and pests as well as being used for transportation and labor on the farm. Livestock also can provide a source of income to the farmer, particularly in times of need. A major challenge of this production system is that it can be difficult to manage both crops and the 11 livestock. Another challenge is that livestock can damage the crops and spread diseases to the crops. A similar type of this production system is the rearing of livestock under tree crop plantations such as oil palm, coconut, rubber, and citrus. This type of production is becoming increasingly popular in recent times. The author investigated the peculiar health problems of sheep raised under tree crop plantations in the forest zone of Ghana and found worm infestations and chemical poisoning as the most predominant health problems. Chemical poisoning of sheep occurred when the oil palm and citrus plantations were sprayed against pests without the livestock section of the farm being informed. The sheep were released then only for them to feed on forages soaked in chemicals. The forest zone of Ghana is also humid and therefore is conducive for worm multiplication, especially during the wet season. A backyard or village or traditional production system is a type of livestock production system that are typically used in smallscale farms. This type of system is characterized by the use of low-input resources such as grazing and foraging. This type of production system is often more sustainable than intensive production systems. It is more resilient to shocks and stresses such as droughts and floods. A backyard or traditional production system is a source of income and food for many rural households in Africa. It is very labor-intensive and can be difficult to control diseases and parasites. Indeed, majority of livestock keepers in Africa are small-scale ones, who invest very little in their livestock enterprises. 12 A semi-intensive production system falls somewhere between backyard or village production system and the intensive production system. This type of system uses a combination of high-input and low-input methods such as grazing, forage and feed concentrates. This type of system produces more output than a backyard or village production system. It is considered to be more sustainable than the intensive production system. Semi-intensive production system also can be more flexible than an intensive production system and it can be adapted to changing market conditions. The key challenges with the semiintensive systems in Africa are that they can be relatively expensive and more difficult to manage than the backyard production system. Additionally, semi-intensive can have a negative impact on the environment, such as through deforestation and water pollution. An intensive and highly commercial production system is a type of livestock production system that uses high-input methods such as concentrates to produce large amounts of output. This type of system is typically used in large-scale farms in Africa. This production system is more capitalintensive, more efficient, more profitable and produces more output than both the backyard or village and the semiintensive production systems. The key challenges with the intensive and commercial production system are that they can be more expensive to operate and more difficult to manage. Transhumant production system is a type of livestock production system in which livestock are moved between different grazing areas throughout the year. This type of 13 system is typically used in areas with seasonal variation in rainfall. This type of system enables livestock to have access to fresh grazing and can help to reduce the risk of livestock diseases. Additionally, this production system can help to preserve traditional cultures and livelihoods. Its demerits are that it is labor-intensive and can be difficult to manage. Additionally, this type of system can have a negative impact on the environment through overgrazing and deforestation. Pastoralist or pure nomadic production system is a livestock production system in which livestock are moved over long distances in search of grazing and water. It is practiced in many parts of Africa, including the Sahel, the Horn of Africa and the Kalahari region of Namibia. The pastoralists have been criticized for being traditional and primitive but what many people fail to see is that pastoralists eke a living on lands that can support nothing except livestock. A lot of good changes are taking place in pastoralist communities such as having representatives in governance systems, schooling for their children and access to health facilities. They share similar demerits with transhumant production system. Urban and Peri-urban livestock production system is a livestock production system that is located within or in the outskirts of an urban area. This type of system is typically used to provide fresh meat and milk to urban residents. It is prominent livestock production system in East Africa. The merits of this system are that they reduce the environmental impact of food production and reduces the need for longdistance transportation of meat and milk. Additionally, it can 14 help to provide a source of income for urban and peri-urban residents. The challenges faced by this system are that they can be difficult to manage and control pests and diseases. It can also have a negative impact on the environment such as through water pollution. Commercial fattening or feedlot production system is a system where livestock are fed a high-energy diet to promote rapid weight gain. It is typically used to produce meat for the market. This can also be done seasonally such as Christmas and other festive occasions in Africa. This type of system can produce large amounts of meat in a short period of time. It can also be more efficient and profitable than other types of production systems. This type of production system can be expensive and also difficult to manage. Furthermore, it can have a negative impact on the environment via water pollution. Calf or Veal production system is a livestock production system where calves are raised for their meat. It is a profitable venture in Southern Africa. Precision production system is a contemporary livestock production system that uses technology to improve efficiency and productivity. It typically uses sensors and data analysis to monitor livestock health, feed intake, feed efficiency utilization and other pertinent factors. This type of system helps improve animal welfare, reduces risk of disease and increases productivity. Additionally, this type of system can help to reduce the environmental impact of livestock 15 production. The disadvantages of this production system is that it can be expensive and difficult to implement. Organic livestock production system is a livestock production system, that follows a set of standards that are designed to promote animal welfare and environmental sustainability. These standards typically prohibit the use of antibiotics, growth hormones, synthetic chemicals and genetically modified feed resources. The benefits of this system are that meat, milk and eggs produced from it can attract premium prices and also considered more sustainable and animal friendly. Its disadvantages are that they can be expensive, especially where the farmer has to pay for third-party certification. It is also more difficult to manage. To boost organic livestock production in Africa, there is the need to establish an Africa-owned and Africa-operated certification system that is accepted internationally. This way, organic milk, meat and eggs from Africa can attract premium prices on the international market. Donors may have to step in and assist livestock farmers to meet the cost of third-party certification. The local organic markets in Africa also need to be developed. Lastly, African farmers should be trained in organic livestock production and marketing, so that they can take advantage of the 125 billion Euros global organic market and sell their organic products internationally. This chapter has discussed the different types of livestock production systems, including their merits and demerits The best production systems will depend on a number of factors, including the size of farm, the type of livestock being raised, 16 available capital, markets for the livestock products, environmental footprint of the livestock enterprises. Irrespective of the livestock production system one adopts, it is expected that the production system should be efficient, sustainable and also profitable. - 17 CHAPTER THREE ANIMAL FEEDS, FEEDING AND NUTRITION Nutrition is essential for the performance and health of livestock animals. A well-nourished animal is more likely to be healthy, productive and resistance to disease. On the other hand, a poorly fed animal is most likely to succumb to pathogens and disease and be less productive. The nutritional requirements of animals vary depending on their species, age, weight, breed and production stage. Various nutrient requirements systems for different types and classes of livestock animals and poultry have been developed to help feed livestock animals appropriately. The most common ones are the National Research Council (NRC) system of the United States, the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) system of the United Kingdom (UK), the Australian Research Council (ARC) system of Australia, the Institut National de la Recherché Agronomique (INRA) of France and the Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (BMEL) system used in Germany. Africa does not have its own animal nutrient requirements systems, so it uses any of the above nutrient requirements systems to estimate the requirements of their animals. The system used in Africa therefore vary across African countries. These requirements are determined based on recent advances in animal nutrition. Furthermore, with the improvement in genetic makeup over years, the nutrient requirements have had to be adjusted upwards for the full expression of the improved genetic makeup of the animals to be realized. Thus, the nutrient requirements systems are 18 periodically revised or updated to reflect current knowledge. Some of the factors that can affect nutrient requirements are species of animal, stage of production, the environment and management system used. For example, beef cattle have different nutrient requirements than dairy cattle. The nutrient requirements of livestock can change as they grow and develop. For example, young animals have different nutrient requirements than mature animals. The nutrient requirements of livestock can be affected by the management system used on the farm. For instance, animals fed a highquality diet may have different nutrient requirements than animals given a low-quality diet. Thus, it is important to consider all of these factors when determining the nutrient requirements of your livestock. Africa has a rich and diverse feed resources that can be used to boost livestock production in Africa (Ocran, 2020). These resources include grasses, fodder trees, cereal and legume grains and root and tuber crops, plantain and bananas, sprouted cereal grains, cover crops, leguminous crops, multipurpose shrubs and their leaf meals. New cultivars of grasses and crops, including bio-fortified ones are being developed from time to time. Various agro-industrial by products such as sunflower meal, cotton seed cake, groundnut cake, and palm kernel cake are increasingly being used in diets of livestock. Common grasses grazed on or cut and fed to animals include Rhodes grass, Napier grass, Elephant grass, Guinea grass and Sudan grass. These grasses can be found in pastures and the different grasslands of Africa such as Savanna grassland, 19 Coastal grassland, Woodland grassland Highlands and Mountain grasslands and Wetland grassland. Each type of grassland has its own unique characteristics and challenges. For example, Savanna grassland is often dry and prone to bushfires, while woodland grassland is often shaded and humid. Pasture development occurs when grasses, shrubs and trees are planted for livestock grazing and for providing shade to animals in high ambient temperatures. Various software packages have been developed for managing pastures. There are many fodder trees in Africa and the most common ones are Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, Calliandra calothyrsus, Sesbania sesban and Prosopis juliflora. These trees are used for a variety of purposes, including grazing, hay and silage production for feeding of livestock. New fodder development programs in Africa are now focusing on new fodder trees and shrubs that are more productive and are also drought–tolerant than the traditional ones. Both hay and silage are preserved forage that are used to feed livestock. Hay is made by cutting and drying grass or legumes and later baled and stored. It is fed in the dry season when quality feed is less available. On the other hand, silage is prepared by chopping green grass or legumes, packed air-tight in a silo or enclosure and allowed it to ferment. They can be fed all-year-round to livestock. Various cereal and legume grains are produced in Africa, which are used in feeding livestock. The common cereal and legume grains are maize, sorghum, millet, wheat, common beans, soy beans, ground nut, Bambara groundnut, cowpea 20 and chick pea (Ocran, 2020a). By-products of cereals and legumes can also be used in livestock production. The cereal grains are rich in carbohydrates, while the legume grains have high protein content. They are used as feed ingredients in livestock, particularly, pigs, poultry, dairy cattle and sometimes in beef cattle. Several roots and tuber crops are cultivated in Africa that can be used as livestock feed. These include, cassava, sweet potato, Irish potato, Frafra potato, yam, and cocoyam. The peeled covers of cassava, yam and cocoyam can also be fed to animals. Root and tuber crops are a rich source of carbohydrate but should not be fed alone to animals as their protein content is low. Plantain and banana are produced in the humid and subhumid zones of Africa. They are rich sources of carbohydrates. It is expensive to feed plantain and banana to livestock. However, their peeled covers are what is fed to livestock and they can be obtained at little or no cost to livestock farmers. Sprouted cereal grains are good sources of nutrients to livestock and are increasingly used to supplement the diets of livestock during the dry seasons when quality feed is not available or is expensive. The cereal grains are soaked in water for 24 hours. The grains are then drained and allowed to sprout for 2 to 3 days and are fed to livestock. Leguminous cover crops are important for livestock production in Africa. They provide forage, improve soil fertility and help to control weeds. Some of the prominent leguminous cover crops are Alfalfa, Rhodes grass, Napier grass, and 21 elephant grass. Others are cowpeas, the common beans and groundnuts. These feed resources are rich in protein but may contain anti-nutritional factors such as tannins. Leguminous leaf meals are a good source of nutrients for livestock and have high protein content (Ocran, 1994; Laswai, Ocran, Lekule and Sundstol, 1997; Ocran, 2020a). Multipurpose shrubs are also high in protein, vitamins and minerals. Both Leguminous leaf meals and multi-purpose shrubs are can be fed to livestock as a supplement to their regular diets and can contribute immensely to the protein needs of animals. They can help to reduce the risk of nutrient deficiencies in livestock and can also be used to improve livestock productivity. Some of the demerits of multi-purpose shrubs and leguminous leaf meals are that they can be expensive to produce, difficult to store and transport. Agro-industrial by-products such as sunflower cake, cottonseed cake, palm kernel cake and groundnut cake are rich in protein and are used in formulating diets of livestock. They are relatively cheaper and available in Africa but their high lipid content can make the feed rancid, if not properly stored. In contemporary times also, the high cost of feed ingredients and the need to make livestock production sustainable are pushing for the use of novel and non-conventional feed resources such as insects, enzymes, essential oils, sea weeds, novel vitamins. Microbiomes are also being accorded increased importance in livestock production. The application of new technology such as precision feeding which uses sensors to track animal activity and feed intake as well as new 22 feed additives such as minerals, vitamins, probiotics and enzymes are increasingly being applied in livestock production in Africa. Insects such as black soldier fly larvae, silkworm, housefly maggots, locust, crickets, grasshopper and earth worm or meal worm can be used to partially replace fish and soybean in the diets of animals. The protein content of insect is highly digestible and can be as high as between 42 to 63 percent (Makker et al., 2014). Insects also offer a better Sulphur containing amino acids than plant-based feed ingredients. Insects are a more sustainable source of protein than traditional feedstuffs such as soybean and fish. Insects can also be raised on a variety of organic waste materials, which reduces the amount of waste that goes to landfills. The cost of rearing insects is relatively low, which makes them a more cost-effective source of protein than traditional feedstuffs. The demerits of insects as animal feed are that insects have cutins in their exoskeletons, which can be poisonous to livestock, if fed at higher levels. Insects also have a high lipid content, up to about 36 percent, that can make the ration rancid, if added in high proportions to the diet. Insect-based rations are also deficient in calcium, as such it requires strategic supplementation with this nutrient. Public acceptance and Governmental regulation of this feed ingredient are also major challenges that need to be addressed in Africa. Enzymes such as phosphatase, proteoses, lipase, carbohydrases etc. are increasingly being used in livestock 23 feed. Enzymes are proteins that can be used speed up chemical reactions in the body. They are used in livestock feed to improve digestibility of feed in the animal. The merits of enzymes are that they can increase nutrient availability of feed, improve growth and performance and reduce the amount of manure produced by livestock. The demerits of enzymes are that they can be expensive, difficult to administer and can have negative effects on livestock. Essential oils are a type of natural compound that can be extracted from plants. They can be used in livestock as an insect repellent on farms with a high population of flies and mosquitoes. Furthermore, they can be used to treat fungal and bacterial infections in livestock. Their use has risen in recent times because of the caution being made on the overuse of antibiotics in livestock. Essential oils can also be used to reduce stress in livestock and improve their health and productivity. Seaweeds are a type of algae that grow in marine environments. They are a good source of protein, vitamins and minerals and they are now being used increasingly as a feed supplement in livestock. Seaweeds are a sustainable feed source and they can be grown in large quantities without depleting natural resources. Their demerits are that they can be expensive and are difficult to store and transport. Furthermore, seaweeds can contain toxins that can harm animals. It is therefore important to weigh its costs and benefits before using seaweeds in livestock production 24 Novel vitamins are new vitamins that have not been previously identified in nature. They are often found in plants and other natural sources but need to be studied extensively before being made public. Studies have shown that feeding livestock with novel vitamins can reduce the incidence of diseases, improve growth rates and increase milk production. There are also concerns that feeding livestock with high levels of novel vitamins can lead to toxicity. More research work is needed to determine the safety and efficacy of novel vitamins in livestock feeding. Microbiome is the community of microorganisms that live in and on the body of livestock animals. Microbiome can help digest feed, absorb nutrients and fight off diseases. They can be affected by factors such as diet, environment and stress. Recent research has demonstrated that microbiomes can be manipulated to improve livestock performance (Brugman et al., 2018). For example, feeding livestock with probiotics can help to improve gut health and increase nutrient absorption. Additionally, vaccination against certain pathogens can help to protect the microbiome from damage. The microbiome is a complex and fascinating system that is currently being indepthly studied. As more information on this topic emerges, microbiome can be manipulated to improve livestock performance and help ensure health and welfare of animals. The livestock industry in Africa is facing a number of challenges, including rising feed costs, the need to use sustainable feed sources and the need to improve animal nutrition. A number of technologies are currently being 25 applied to address some of these concerns. The application of new technology to livestock feeds and feeding has the potential to improve animal health, productivity and welfare. It also has the potential to reduce the environmental impact of the livestock industry in Africa. 26 CHAPTER FOUR ANIMAL GENETICS AND BREEDING Animal genetics and breeding are important in livestock production, because they ultimately determine together with the environment in which the animal is reared, the expression of traits such as the weight gain (meat), volume of milk produced and number of eggs laid. As such, animals with superior genetic make-ups for a particular trait outperform their counterparts with a poor genetic composition. The past three to four decades have witnessed massive improvement in the genetic makeup of livestock, leading to enormous production of meat, milk and eggs. For example, when I began my undergraduate degree program in Animal science in the 1980s, it took poultry farmers in Ghana, 8 weeks to achieve a market weight of 2kg. Now this can be done in 5 weeks and it shows how much progress we have made over the years. Animal genetics and breeding is a complex and ever-evolving field of science. It is the process of selecting and breeding of animals to produce offspring with the desired traits such as higher meat, milk and egg production, better feed utilization efficiency, improved resistance to diseases or improved health. There are different methods of breeding and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. These methods include Selection, Cross-breeding, Gene and DNA substitution and the use of use of gene and DNA markers in livestock breeding. Selection is the process of choosing animals with the desired traits required by the animal breeder to be parents of the next generation. Selection can be done based on physical 27 characteristics such as size or weight or on performance traits such as milk production or egg laying ability. For example, a breeder who is interested in increasing milk production might select cows that have a high milk yield or a breeder whose goal is to improve the health of their animals might select animals that resistant to disease. Selection can be done manually or with the help of computers. The former involves evaluating each animal individually and choosing the animals with the desired traits. Computerized selection involves using software to evaluate a large number of animals and to identify the animals with the desired traits. Selection is a relatively simple and inexpensive method. However, it can be time-consuming and may not be effective in producing animals with the desired traits. Cross-breeding is another breeding method, where animals from two different breeds are made to breed. Cross-breeding can be used to combine the desirable traits of two different breeds. In Africa, majority of our breeding programs were on using local breeds with high adaptability to local conditions with improved breeds from the temperate region with higher productivity, so that their progeny would have the desirable traits from their parents. This led to the development of F1 progeny that can withstand the harsh climatic conditions of Africa and the higher productivity of temperate conditions, measured in terms of higher live-weight gain, milk and egg production. For example, the University of Ghana developed the Nungua Blackhead sheep in a cross-breeding program involving a local sheep and the black head sheep from South Africa. Some of the cross-breeding programs have been 28 successful, while others were not. Cross-breeding programs can be more effective than selection in producing animals with the desired traits. However, it can be more expensive and time consuming. Gene and DNA substitution is the process of transferring genes and DNA from one animal to another. Gene and DNA substitution can be used to improve the health, productivity or other traits of animals. Gene and DNA substitution is a relatively new technology but it has the potential to be very effective in improving the health, productivity and other traits of animals. Gene and DNA markers are short segments of DNA that are associated with specific traits. The use of gene and DNA markers can help breeders to select animals with the desired traits even before breeding is done. However, it is a relatively new technology and its full potential is not yet known. Cloning and transgenic animal development are two new and emerging technologies that have the potential to revolutionize animal breeding. Cloning is the process of creating an animal that is genetically identical to another. South Africa produced the Dolly sheep through cloning. Transgenic animals are animals that have had genes from another organism inserted into their DNA. Cloning and transgenic animal development have the potential to produce animals with desired traits that cannot be produced through traditional breeding methods. For example, cloning could be used to produce animals that are resistant to diseases or that have increased productivity. On the other hand, transgenic animals could be used to 29 produced animals that produce milk with higher levels of nutrients or that are resistant to parasites. Some people have ethical concerns on cloning and transgenic animal development and such people believe that these animal development techniques are unnatural, not-fit for human consumption and should be abolished. In contemporary Africa, there is a growing interest in using cloning and transgenic animal development to improve livestock production. There are however a number of challenges that need to be addressed before these technologies can be widely adopted in Africa. These challenges include the high cost of cloning and transgenic animal development, the lack of infrastructure and expertise and the need for public acceptance. These challenges notwithstanding cloning and transgenic animal development can potentially boost livestock production in Africa. Another contemporary issue facing the livestock industry in Africa is the great loss of genetic diversity. Many years of breeding have led to inbreeding within and the loss of genetic diversity among a number of indigenous livestock breeds in Africa. This situation has become a major challenge, leading to great efforts being made by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) to conserve the genetic diversity of African breeds (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2007). To conclude, this chapter has discussed the major breeding methods for improving the production and productivity of 30 livestock in Africa, including their merits and demerits. A number of contemporary developments in animal genetics and breeding in Africa were also highlighted and discussed. The challenge of genetic diversity loss in livestock in Africa was also identified and the current efforts being made by FAO and ILRI to address the issue was mentioned. The low productivity of African livestock breeds is common knowledge and one of the key approaches to addressing this problem is the application of genetic and breeding tools to raise livestock production and productivity. Thankfully, we now have new technologies that can be applied to improve livestock production and productivity in Africa, within the shortest possible time. So let’s use them. 31 CHAPTER FIVE ANIMAL DISEASES, PREVENTION, CONTROL AND ANIMAL HEALTH Animal diseases are very important in the livestock industry in Africa because they can significantly reduce livestock production, productivity and profitability. As such every effort should be made to prevent animal diseases and when they do occur, they must be controlled as quickly as possible. Important diseases in Cattle in Africa include Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), East Coast fever (ECF), Trypanosomiasis, Bovine tuberculosis and Anthrax. Rinderpest used to be a potent animal disease in Africa but it has been eradicated. FMD is a highly contagious viral disease that affects clovenhoofed animals. FMD is characterized by fever, blisters on the mouth and feet and lameness. FMD can be prevented by vaccination and controlled by movement restrictions. East Coast fever (ECF) is a tick-borne disease that affects cattle and it is characterized by fever, weight loss, anemia and the swelling of the lymph nodes. ECF can be fatal in some cases. It can be prevented by vaccination and controlled by eliminating ticks through dipping on the farm. Trypanosomiasis is a disease in cattle caused by Tsetsefly. It is an endemic disease in the tsetse-belt of Africa. The disease can be controlled through eradication of tsetse flies and the use of prophylactic drugs. Bovine tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial disease that affects cattle. TB is characterized by weight loss, fever and coughing. The disease can be spread to humans. Bovine TB is prevented by vaccination and controlled by testing and culling of infected animals from the herd of cattle. Anthrax is yet 32 another bacterial disease that affects cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. Anthrax is characterized by fever, chills, vomiting and diarrhea. The disease can be fatal and is prevented by vaccination and controlled by biosecurity measures. Currently, the most important diseases of sheep and goats are Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), Contagious ecthyma (orf), Endo- and Ecto-parasites, Johne’s disease and Salmonellosis. PPR is a highly contagious viral disease that affects sheep and goats. PPR can be fatal in some cases and it is characterized by fever, respiratory distress and diarrhea. PPR can be prevented through vaccination and controlled by movement restrictions. Contagious ecthyma is also a viral disease and is characterized by blisters on the skin, especially around the mouth, nose and feet. The disease is not fatal, but it can be unsightly and reduce the value of the animal on the market. Contagious ecthyma can be prevented by vaccination. Sheep and goats are afflicted by various parasites, including internal and external parasites. The internal parasites are controlled by de-worming, while the external parasites are removed through periodic dipping of the animals. Johne’s disease is a chronic bacterial disease, which is characterized by weight loss, diarrhea and anemia. The disease is not fatal but it can be very debilitating. Johne’s disease can be prevented by vaccination but there is no cure. Salmonellosis is a bacterial disease that is characterized by fever, diarrhea and vomiting. The disease can be fatal in young animals. Salmonellosis can be prevented by providing clean water and feed to the animals and thoroughly cooking the meat before eating it. 33 Current important diseases of pigs are African Swine fever (ASF), Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS), Aujeszky’s disease (Pseudo-rabies), Trichinella spiralis and Salmonella. ASF is a highly contagious viral disease that is characterized by fever, weight loss and diarrhea. The disease is fatal in some cases. ASF has been spreading rapidly in Africa in recent years and there is vaccine or treatment. Once the disease is detected the entire herd on the farm and neighboring ones need to be destroyed. PRRS is a highly contagious viral disease and is characterized by respiratory distress, fever and loss of appetite. The disease can be fatal in young pigs or piglets and can be prevented by vaccination. Like PRRS, Aujeszky’s disease is also a highly contagious viral disease and characterized by fever, respiratory distress and seizures. The disease is fatal in most cases and can be prevented by vaccinating the pigs. Trichinella spiralis is a parasitic worm that afflicts pigs and can be transferred to human when undercooked pork containing Trichinella spiralis larvae is eaten. The ingested Larvae causes the disease Trichinosis in humans. Salmonella is a group of bacteria that can cause food poisoning in humans and animals. Salmonella infection in pigs can cause diarrhea, weight loss and death. Salmonella can be prevented by good management practices and strict application of biosafety measures. Current important diseases of poultry are Avian influenza (bird flu), Newcastle disease, Coccidiosis and Pullorum disease. Avian Influenza is a highly contagious viral disease that affect poultry. The disease is characterized by respiratory distress, fever and loss of appetite. The disease can be fatal in most 34 cases and is prevented by biosecurity measures such as vaccination and movement restrictions. Newcastle disease is a highly contagious viral disease that can affect poultry. It is characterized by respiratory distress, coughing and paralysis. The disease can be fatal in most cases and is prevented via vaccination. Coccidiosis is a parasitic disease and its key symptoms are diarrhea, weight loss and anemia. The disease can be fatal in young birds. Coccidiosis can be prevented by the use of anti-coccidial drugs and good management such as providing clean water and bedding. Pullorum disease is caused by a bacteria and is characterized by diarrhea, weight loss and anemia. The disease can be fatal in young birds and is prevented by vaccination. One of the major contemporary issues in animal health is the rise of antibiotic resistance, due to overuse and misuse of antibiotics in animals and humans. This issue has been dealt with substantially in the next chapter of this book. Another issue is the spread of new diseases, particularly the African Swine Fever in Africa, Europe and Asia. Its effects have been devastating to pig populations, as many pigs had to be destroyed to curb the disease. Climate change is also another contemporary issue that is having an impact on animal health. For example, warmer temperatures are making it easier for diseases to spread and changes in rainfall patterns are making it more difficult to provide livestock with adequate water and feed. The rapid growth of the livestock sector is putting a strain on resources and increasing the risk of disease outbreaks. For example, the demand for meat is increasing in Africa and this is leading to more animals being raised in 35 confined spaces. This development increases the risk of disease outbreaks. These challenges can be addressed by using antibiotics responsibly to treat livestock diseases and improving biosecurity measures to prevent the spread of diseases. There is also the need for new vaccines to be developed for diseases such as African Swine Fever and Avian Influenza. Geospatial tools, such as satellite imagery and geographic information systems should be used to track the spread of diseases and identify areas that are at risk. Again, big data from livestock production systems and social media can be used to track the spread of diseases and identify areas at risk so that they can be quarantined and the disease dealt with. Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) can also be used to quickly and easily test animals for disease in remote parts of Africa, where there is limited access to veterinary services. Veterinary surveillance can also be mounted to identify diseases, track their spread and assess the impact of the disease on livestock populations. Livestock farmers and ranchers in Africa should change their practices and embrace climate-smart and sustainable livestock production so that climate change can be reduced on the African continent. Livestock farmers and ranchers in Africa should also be educated about the importance of animal health and how to prevent diseases. Other contemporary measures that can be taken to improve animal health in Africa include investing in veterinary education and training to increase the number of veterinarians available to provide care for livestock as well as 36 providing access to affordable veterinary services. There is also the need to ban the use of growth hormones in livestock production. The European Union had already banned the use of growth hormones in livestock in that part of the world. Traceability systems from livestock farm to fork are increasingly being demanded by consumers of livestock products. Major livestock exporting countries in Africa such as Namibia and Botswana have instituted stringent traceability measures to guarantee their continued export of beef to Europe. Animal rights activists are also calling for better care for diseased animals. They insist that animals deserve to be treated humanely, even if they are sick. Online information systems are being used to diagnose and prescribe treatments to livestock animals in Africa. These systems provide veterinarians and livestock farmers with access to a wealth of information on diagnostic tools and treatment options. These online information systems are helping to reduce the cost of veterinary services and make it more accessible to livestock farmers in the rural parts of Africa. Para veterinary professionals are also playing an increasingly important role in the delivery of veterinary services in Africa These professionals are trained to provide basic veterinary care, such as vaccinations, deworming and treatment of minor injuries. Drones are also being used to transport medicines to livestock farmers in remote villages of Africa. This is helping to improve access to veterinary care in these areas and reduce the cost of transporting medicines. In conclusion, this chapter has described the current important diseases affecting the various species of livestock 37 and their control measures. The measures that need to be instituted to ensure animal health in Africa were also discussed as well as some of the contemporary developments in the livestock industry with respect to animal health. 38 CHAPTER SIX LIVESTOCK AND ANTI-MICROBIAL RESISTANCE Anti-microbial Resistance (AMR) is one of the contemporary challenges facing the livestock sector globally and Africa in particular. The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified Anti-microbial resistance as one of the existential problems facing humanity. Anti-microbial resistance is posing a great threat to livestock production in Africa. According to Ritchie (2017) anti-microbial resistance occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites change over time and no longer respond to medicines that once could treat them effectively. This development can lead to longer illnesses, more expensive treatments and increased risk of death altogether. In Africa, AMR is a major to threat to livestock farmers, who are often unable to afford the high cost of new antibiotics or other treatments required to get their animals back to good health again. This development leads to decreased production and productivity, increased financial losses and even abandonment of livestock farming altogether in extreme situations. The World Health Organization has identified antimicrobial as a threat to human health and this is rightly so because when animals are infected with Anti-microbial resistance bacteria, they spread these bacteria to humans through contact with their meat, milk or other products. Eventually, this can lead to serious infections that are difficult or impossible to treat. Provisional estimates put the cost of AMR to the livestock sector in Africa and humanity as a whole in billions of dollars annually. 39 What are some of the causative factors contributing to the problem of anti-microbial resistance in Africa? Inadequate access to veterinary care is one of them. Many livestock farmers in Africa do not have access to qualified veterinarians or other animal health professionals. Post independent African governments were the sole provider of veterinary services to livestock farmers at virtually no cost to them. However, in recent times, provision of veterinary services has been privatized and many livestock farmers, especially the smaller ones, cannot afford such services. This is promoting misuse and overuse of antibiotics and other antimicrobials, leading to the development of anti-microbial resistance. A stop-gap measure to address the high cost of veterinary services was to train people from among livestock farming communities to provide first-aid veterinary services. However, this led to antagonism between them and qualified veterinarians and in some African countries this stop-gap measure had to be abandoned. Another causative factor for the high incidence of AMR in Africa is poor livestock management practices. Many small-scaled livestock farmers in Africa, who are in the majority, lack proper training in modern livestock managerial practices in feeds and feeding, breeding, disease prevention and control, maintenance of good hygiene or sanitation, and avoidance of overcrowding. As a result of this development, the livestock animals under their care easily succumbed to diseases, including AMR. There is also a lack of effective and efficient surveillance and monitoring of AMR in Africa. This makes it difficult to track the spread of AMR and to develop effective interventions to 40 address the problem. A booming trade in live animals exist between some countries in Eastern and Southern Africa and the Middle East and Europe. Even though effective sanitary and photo-sanitary measures have been put in place to check the exporting of diseased animals, this also allows livestock farmers and exporters to administer antibiotics to keep the animals in good health, which contribute to the spread of AMR. This is precisely because animals can carry AMR bacterial even if they are not sick. The European Union has banned the use of antibiotics in livestock production entirely. In Africa, the African Union has taken a policy decision to curb anti-microbial resistance on the continent and a Policy Framework had been developed to assist its Member States towards addressing the challenge of AMR. Apart from the political support received from our leaders, there is also the need to strengthen veterinary services in Africa and improve access to qualified veterinarians and other animal health professionals. This will ensure that antibiotics and other antimicrobials are used appropriately and that AMR is monitored effectively. There is also the need to improve livestock management practices in Africa to reduce the risk of Anti-microbial resistance. This can be done by providing adequate nutrition, improving sanitation and reducing overcrowding among herds or flocks of livestock. Furthermore, there is the need to strengthen surveillance and monitoring of AMR in Africa. In addition, laws enacted to protect the general public from AMR, should be enforced dutifully. 41 The use of antibiotics in agriculture and livestock in Africa needs to be reduced and the possibility of developing alternative treatments for livestock diseases should be explored. In addition, proper education and awareness creation of the general public on the importance of using antibiotics appropriately and the risks of AMR should be done. It is pertinent to point out that it is not only the use of antibiotics in livestock that has contributed to the development of AMR. Other factors such as the overuse of antibiotics in humans, the improper disposal of antibiotics and the spread of AMR from animals and humans also play a role. Dulo (2015) reported that multi-resistance to drugs detected in goats originated from drugs used to treat human infections and this may be the originators of AMR in livestock in the ecosystem where this study was conducted. There is however good news that antidotes have been found to address the challenge of AMR. Marquardt and Li (2018) reported that advances in technology have shown that the efficacy of antibiotics can be restored by the use of antibioticpeptide conjugates. These authors further stated that improved DNA technology allows the selection of livestock that have genetic resistance to pathogenic microorganisms. There are also essential oils and enzymes that can fully or partially replace the use of antibiotics in livestock production. To conclude, this section has described AMR and its importance to livestock production in Africa. The various causative factors of the AMR have been highlighted and discussed. The various solutions to addressing this challenge 42 have also been outlined. Thanks to modern technology, the threat posed by AMR can now be combatted but the technology used is yet to be mainstreamed in Africa. 43 CHAPTER SEVEN WATER REQUIREMENTS, WATERING FREQUENCY AND HEAT STRESS IN LIVESTOCK IN AFRICA Water is an essential requirement for livestock production globally and in Africa. Livestock animals need water for drinking, for cooling their body temperature and for maintaining their body functions. Water requirements in livestock vary depending on the species of the animal, age, the prevailing climate, the type of feed and the desired level of production. Water is important to livestock animals because it is used for hydrolysis of the feed ingested and aids digestion. Water also helps in providing the right PH for enzymatic activity at the cellular level of the animal. Water requirements are not the same for the various species of animals. For example, cattle require about ten to fifteen liters of water per day per animal, whereas sheep and goats need about five to seven liters and three to five liters per day per animal. The age and the bodyweight of the animal also affect water intake. Older and heavier animals require more water that their compatriots that are younger and have lower bodyweights. The prevailing climate also influences water intake. Livestock generally require more water under hot and dry climatic conditions than when the climate is cool and wet. The type of feed also has an effect on water requirement and intake. Feed resources that are succulent and with lower dry matter content leads to animals demanding less water than would have been the case, if the feed was dry and has higher dry matter content. The desired level of production for livestock 44 also influences the level of water needed to achieve that level of production. For example, if higher volumes of milk are required from dairy cattle, they must be given more feed and water to meet the higher level of production desired accordingly. Some livestock farmers provide their animals with ad-libitum water, that is, as much as the animal can drink. On the hand, some farmers provide water and feed to their animals based on their live bodyweights. This implies that heavier animals are given more water than their counterparts with lower bodyweight. The merit of this managerial technique is that less wastage of water is recorded and for commercial farms with large herds of animals, the prevention of such wastage enhances bottom-line results of the farm. In contemporary times, where precision livestock production is currently being promoted results in livestock being given feed and water precisely at the amount they actually require leading to less wastage of feed and water resources. The watering frequency of livestock also varies depending on a number of factors. These factors include the species of livestock, the climatic conditions, the type of feed and the level of production desired. Cattle, Sheep and Goat can be given water once every one to two days without any adverse effects on their production. However, during periods of dry spell or the dry season, water should be offered to the animals more frequently than is the case during the wet season. There are varied reasons for this managerial technique. In the dry season, the climatic conditions are dry and the grass and other crops used as feed resources are also dry, with a high level of fiber due to increased lignification. Livestock therefore needs 45 more water to hydrolyze such feed before they are digested. The plight of livestock is even made worse by the drying up of available water bodies as well. This situation is further aggravated during periods of drought or dry spells. It is for this reason that livestock farmers are advised to sink boreholes on their farms so that the water needs of their livestock can be met under such situations. It has been established that whereas drought occurs, especially in the arid and semi-arid regions of Africa, every decade or so, now drought is recorded every two to three years (Ehui, Kray and Mghenyi, 2020). This informs us that meeting water requirements of livestock satisfactorily is one of the key contemporary issues facing livestock production in Africa. Climate change is also expected to exacerbate the problem of water scarcity in Africa and this would have a negative impact on livestock production. Furthermore, the rapid human population growth is also not helping matters as far as water usage in Africa is concerned. This is because increased population growth in Africa is putting a strain on the available water for use by both humans and livestock. And mind you, preference is always given to humans at the expense of livestock. The provision of water to livestock can also be used to effectively managed them. For example, putting salt lick blocks at vantage points near watering points on the farm can be used to encourage the animals to lick these blocks and in the process help them meet their micro-nutrient needs. The frequency of water usage should be increased during periods of high metabolic rates and less water in periods of low metabolic rates. 46 Heat stress is a major problem for livestock in Africa. Heat stress can reduce livestock productivity, increase risk of succumbing to diseases and can even lead to death. Factors that contribute to heat stress are high ambient temperature, high humidity, lack of shade, poor ventilation and overcrowding in the livestock shed or pens. High ambient temperature further worsens the plight of livestock animals under high humidity conditions. This makes the animals not only uncomfortable but also results in the animals eating less feed because their metabolic rates cannot be sustained under such conditions. Feed utilization efficiency decreases and the outcome of heat stress is lowered animal productivity. This in turn adversely affects production in terms of milk, meat and eggs and the general profitability on the farm. The effects of heat stress in Africa can be ameliorated or mitigated by planting trees within the farm to provide shade to the animals during periods of high temperatures. The animals should also be given plenty of clean water to quench their thirst. Furthermore, water can be sprayed or sprinkled on the animals to reduce their body temperatures and allow them to eat and maintain a higher metabolic rate. The livestock animals should also be fed diets with high energy and low protein content. The livestock farmer should also avoid overcrowding and provide adequate leg room for walking and exercising. The livestock pen should be well-ventilated to enable the animals breathe in fresh air and exhale carbon dioxide which is carried away by the air. Climate change and its attendant drought may exacerbate heat stress in Africa. There have been various reports in recent 47 times, where livestock animals have died due to drought and heat stress. Livestock farmers need to rely on early warning systems from meteorologists, so that they can move their animals to areas with water or where this is possible to sell their animals and used the money for re-stocking when the drought ends and the rains kick in. Indigenous breeds of livestock in Africa can relatively adapt better to high temperatures and heat stress compared to temperate breeds of livestock animals. Conversely, temperate breeds of livestock give higher levels of production and productivity than indigenous African breeds. A number of cross-breeding programs were therefore initiated to develop cross-breeds that maintain the desirable characteristics of both indigenous and temperate breeds. However, the outcomes from these programs have been mixed; some were spectacularly successful, while others were not. Work done in Southern Australia, seems to suggest that breeding for tolerance to heat stress is unlikely to improve the performance of livestock production systems even at 2070 (Moore and Afshin, 2014). Africa shares similar climatic conditions with Australia, so this finding is pertinent to us in Africa. Thornton and co-workers (2021) also reported that by the end of this century, extreme heat stress risk is projected to increase for all livestock species in many parts of the tropics compared to 2000. To conclude, water requirements, watering frequency and heat stress are all important factors that can affect the productivity of livestock in Africa. It has also been pointed out 48 that water scarcity is becoming a contemporary issue in livestock production in Africa. This calls for concrete plans for harvesting and storing water for use during periods of dry spells or drought. In areas, where the level of ground water is high, boreholes can be sunk for water for livestock production during the dry season or spells. General water conservation practices should be improved and taught to livestock farmers. It is also high time for livestock breeders to develop droughttolerant or resistant livestock breeds in Africa. Furthermore, training and education on water management for livestock need to be given serious thought in Africa. By implementing the afore-mentioned steps, we can ensure that our livestock production is sustainable even in the times of climate change. 49 CHAPTER EIGHT LIVESTOCK HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT Livestock housing and equipment are essential for the successful rearing of livestock animals and their attendant production of meat, milk and eggs. Modern livestock housing facilities should provide livestock animals with a safe and comfortable environment in which to live, while the right equipment helps livestock farmers to feed, water and manage their animals more efficiently. In contemporary times, issues affecting the design, construction and use of livestock housing and equipment are animal welfare, environmental impact of livestock, the economics of livestock production and public health. Animal welfare concerns have been a topical issue in recent times for very good reasons. Animals that are housed in poor, deplorable and badly designed conditions expose the animals to infections, injuries and lameness. In extreme cases, the animals and birds are also more likely to exhibit abnormal behaviors such as pecking, aggression and self-mutilation. Furthermore, such conditions also prevent the animals from expressing their innate abilities fully and hinder them from producing milk, meat and eggs optimally. To improve animal welfare concerns in livestock housing and equipment, modern livestock houses should provide animals with enough leg room and space, so that, they can freely move around and exercise. Daily exercise is needed to ensure good health of the animals. The animals should also be provided with comfortable bedding such as straw, grass, sawn dust or wood shavings, among others. These beddings should be changed regularly so 50 that they do not harbor pathogens and become a source of disease outbreak on the farm. The livestock house itself should be well-aerated or ventilated to prevent the accumulation of toxic gases in it. It should also allow fresh air into the livestock house and pens. This way, the animals get to breathe in health-inducing air, while toxic gases emanating from the beddings and metabolic processes of the animals are blown out of the house. A well-ventilated livestock house or pen is a key priority to ensuring that livestock animals are not suffocated by noxious gases such as ammonia, methane, and nitrous oxide. It is extremely important that animals have access to fresh air and sunlight. In the same vein, the livestock house or pen should be designed in a manner that does not expose the animals to inclement weather conditions. For example, the livestock house should be erected perpendicular to the wind to shield them from windy weather conditions. As such, modern livestock houses should be able to fulfill these two purposes; (a) allow the animals to get fresh air and sunlight but at the same time (b) it should shield them from bad weather conditions. In hot climatic conditions, where temperatures are high and prevent livestock animals from achieving their optimal metabolic rates, a cooling system in the form of spraying water on the animals can be done. Also, where it is affordable and economical, the entire livestock house can be refrigerated to lower the temperatures of the animals. This is especially true of dairy production in the tropics, where higher metabolic rates are desired to sustain higher volumes of milk production. On the other hand, in African countries, especially in the 51 highlands, where cold climatic conditions can be found, the livestock house may have to be heated to raise its temperature to allow the livestock animals to eat and give better production outcomes. Animal welfare concerns also require that animals are given clean water and food to facilitate optimal production. Offering bad water to animals not only endanger their health but it is also deemed cruel and inhumane. The animals should be allowed to interact freely with one another. Animals are social creatures and they need to interact with other animals of their own species. Animal welfare concerns have been on an ascendency in recent times. Many animal-rights groups are advocating that not only should livestock houses mimic the animals and birds’ natural environment, but also it should make them safe, comfortable and not lead them to injury. In Africa, the African Union Commission has developed a policy framework that seeks to assist African Union member states to seriously address issues pertaining to animal welfare in their respective countries. For example, the European Union has banned the use of “Battle cage system” for housing poultry because it considers it inhumane and unnatural to the birds. Another contemporary issue affecting livestock production in Africa is the significant environmental impact that livestock production exerts. Livestock production, especially in beef and dairy cattle, pigs, goat and sheep leads to the emission of greenhouse gases such as methane, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide, which cause climate change. Livestock housing systems on farms should be designed in a manner that reduces 52 this environmental impact of livestock production. The manure, urine and beddings should all be recycled or composted. This helps reduce the amount of waste that goes into landfills that ultimately pollutes water bodies. Instead, the waste collected from livestock houses and pens should be composted and turned into organic fertilizer. Livestock houses and pens should also be powered by renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power. This will drastically reduce the environmental impact or footprint of livestock production. The provision of excellent housing and equipment to livestock animals and birds is not free but comes at a cost. The cost of livestock housing and equipment is a major factor in the profitability of livestock production. The cost of housing and equipment can vary greatly in Africa depending on the type of livestock and poultry species one is rearing, the size of the operation and the location of the operation. Small-sized livestock farmers use housing materials that are cheaper or comes at no cost to them. Smaller housing units are less expensive to build and maintain. Used housing and equipment can also be purchased at a fraction of the cost of the new equipment. However, such housing and equipment need to be disinfected to prevent diseases and pathogens from being introduced into the farm. On the other hand, medium and Large-sized livestock enterprises invest substantially in modern livestock houses and pens and these costs need to be recouped from the livestock production. The location of the livestock houses or farms is also very important. The farm should be closer to marketing centers and the houses should 53 not be constructed on hilly lands. Ideally, the livestock house should be on a well-drained soil or land that permits excess water to percolate into the soil and prevent flooding during the raining season. Good hygiene needs to be practiced to prevent diseases from being introduced into the livestock houses and pens. Visitors should not be allowed into the livestock pens without the needed disinfection. The contemporary issues in livestock housing and equipment in Africa are complex and challenging. Challenging because majority of livestock farmers use traditional and less-capital intensive livestock housing and equipment systems. Many of these farmers may not even be aware of some of the issues that have been raised and discussed under livestock housing and equipment. However, the good news is that literacy rates in Africa are increasing, so many of future livestock farmers would be able to appreciate issues such as improving animal welfare, reducing environmental impact of livestock production and protecting public health through effective and modern livestock housing and equipment systems. By working together, we can make livestock production more sustainable and humane through the livestock housing and equipment we use on our farms. 54 CHAPTER NINE HUSBANDRY AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES A novelty in livestock husbandry and management is the digitalization of some of the practices that ensure optimal production and reproduction of livestock animals and poultry. This modernization of livestock production has started in some countries and farms in Africa but they are yet to be mainstreamed to the level of small-scale livestock farms. In the past, record keeping on the farm on parameters such as birthweight, date of birth, weaning age, weight at weaning, growth rate, age and weight at first mating, age at first pregnancy, age at first calving and lactation were manually done and often considered as a laborious task which only commercially-oriented and teaching livestock farms could afford to undertake. Currently, electronic record keeping of the afore-mentioned parameters are being done as it is cheaper, faster and also efficient. It also lends itself to traceability of diseases and other malfunctioning of animals on the farm. It is also now easier to detect animals on heat on the farm using sensors and other electronic applications. In the past, male livestock had to be painted with colors to assist in determining which of the female animals were on heat. Those females which were mounted by the male animals and got colored on their backs as well as having swollen vulva are deemed to be on heat. This approach may not be error-free but was considered the most appropriate means of identifying female animals on heat. Another laborious task on the farm which is being taken over by robots is the milking of dairy 55 cattle. It is a tedious work, especially for the farm worker, if he or she had to milk animals in their hundreds within a short period of time. The farm worker must ensure that the cows are well massaged to let out all the milk within them. Furthermore, they must stand at the side of the cow so that the farm worker does not get kicked by the cow. All these challenges are now being expertly handled by the assigned robot. One may argue that it is expensive to use a robot to milk cows but it has been established that the cost even out with time (Salfer and Minegishi, 2018) and it is even cheaper to use of robot when one has a large herd of dairy cattle. Cultivation of pastures on the farm using sensors and drones to fertilize and water the grass and legumes precisely is gaining acceptance from livestock farm managers. It is now possible to manage pastures using software applications (Pasturemap, 2023; Maia grazing, 2023). In the past, Farm Managers were counseled to rotate their grazing pastures so that they can prevent a heavy burden of endo-parasites on the grazing field and also enable the grazed pastures to recover before animals are sent in once again to graze. The wisdom in this advice is still relevant but grazing software applications ensures that animals are better matched to available grazing resources. Preparation of hay and silage on the farm during the time of plenty is still being done so that they can be used during the dry season when feed is less available. Perhaps, what is new is that more efficient and faster baling machinery has been put on the market. This enables large tons of hay to be baled within the shortest possible time for storage against the dry 56 season. There is still wisdom for livestock farmers to take advantage of compensatory growth during the early rains after the dry spell to fatten their animals for the market. It is also a good practice to “flush” your pregnant and lactating animals by putting them on a higher plane of nutrition, so that their reproductive capacity and mothering abilities can be enhanced. Synchronizing the reproduction period of animals so that they can be inseminated artificially with in the same period is also a good practice. Currently there are better storage facilities than was the case decades ago, so the sperms of “champion” bulls, boars and rams can be kept for a longer period without losing their potency. This development together with electronic detection of heat is enhancing reproductive capacities on farms in Africa. Electronic identification tags are now being increasingly used on farms in Africa. These tags are more humane and better than the branding of livestock animals with hot branding tools. Using sensors and other software applications, it is now possible to monitor animals in real time electronically through feed and water intake and general composure. It is possible to trace diseased animals to their source and cull them from the herd or flock of animals before they spread diseases to others. Extensive research has been carried out on the most effective weaning weight and age of all types of livestock animals. This information is available and it can be used to increase the through-put of one’s herd of flock of animals 57 It is now common knowledge that manure from cattle, sheep and pigs can be a source of greenhouse gases if they not properly treated and disposed of. It is therefore incumbent on livestock farmers to effectively treat and manage manure before they are disposed of. Separation of female animals from the mating male animals until the period of mating is still a good practice on the farm. It is also important to introduce superior male animals from other farms or buy new ones to mate your female animals from time to time. This strategy helps prevent in-breeding on the farm. Weighing of animals on the farm periodically is a cumbersome task and an uncomfortable undertaking for animals on the farm. It is now possible to use sensitive sensors to precisely measure the weight of an animal and register it in a database on the farm. Artificial Intelligence can access this data and predict insights from it, which can assist the farm manager or stockman to take important decisions on their animals (Owczarek, 2022). Castration of male animals on the farm is now considered inhumane by animal rights activists. In the case of pigs, castration is done to prevent the male odor on the meat, so stockmen are right to continue castrating their male pigs. Online information services have also been provided to livestock farmers on all aspect of livestock farming and good example is the livestock information services being offered by iCow. It is obvious from our discourse that a lot of new developments are taking place to make farm management 58 more effective and efficient. This in turn can boost the profit margins of farms in Africa. . 59 CHAPTER TEN LIVESTOCK INPUT SUPPLY AND SERVICES Various inputs are required for the optimal production of livestock animals and poultry. These inputs are compounded feed, feed ingredients, breeding stock, agro-chemicals, the provision of mechanization services, salt licks, vitamin and mineral pre-mixes, veterinary drugs, vaccines, various machinery and equipment used on the farm, day-old chicks, pasture seeds and planting materials, calves for growing and fattening, various software applications for selling livestock inputs, among others. Livestock suppliers play an important role in the promotion of innovation and enhancement of productivity on livestock farms in Africa. In the past, majority of livestock input suppliers in Africa were government and quasi-government agencies and most of the inputs were imported into Africa. The prices of these inputs were not dictated by market forces, but were highly subsidized and were also centralized. The livestock input suppliers were also located in major cities and towns of Africa. However, in contemporary times, these services are being provided mostly by private sector operatives and non-governmental organizations focusing on the livestock sector. Most of the stake of governments in publicly-funded livestock farms has been offloaded to the private sector. Furthermore, feed, vitamin and mineral premixes and day-old chicks are currently being produced within Africa. Livestock inputs suppliers have spread their services to the villages as well, in addition to their shops in the cities and towns. 60 Two types of livestock input suppliers are recognizable. There are the livestock input suppliers, who only sell their inputs to livestock farmers and provide no other services. Then, we also have the suppliers that sell inputs and provide advisory services to livestock farmers. This category of input suppliers, teach livestock farmers how to use the inputs sold to them. New livestock farmers find these services most helpful, whilst experienced farmers can do without the pieces of advice offered by the suppliers. Majority of pastoralist livestock owners have over the years acquired good knowledge on the husbandry of their animals, including attending to their health needs. In the past, most of these input suppliers received no training and therefore provide bad services to livestock farmers. However, in contemporary times, input manufacturers provide periodic capacity-building and training programs or refresher courses to their local suppliers on how best to use their products. Local agents of these manufacturers also pay farm visits to ascertain how the use of these inputs are profiting the farmer. Livestock input suppliers face unique challenges in pursuing their trade. Notable among them is lack of market for their inputs in predominantly livestock communities that practice zero-input and poor-output farming systems. These are mostly subsistent farmers, who do not see livestock farming as a business undertaking. They, therefore, do not invest in the enterprise and are not concerned with the poor outputs that they achieve. 61 Livestock input suppliers also lack affordable credit facilities to expand their business enterprises. However, in recent years their importance in the livestock value chain in Africa is being increasingly recognized by organizations such as AGRA and Heifer International are providing training and credit facilities to increase their impact in the livestock value chains in Africa. There is also lack of capacity among input suppliers themselves. A sizable number of input suppliers have inadequate knowledge about the inputs they sell. If this is the case, then such input supplier may not be well positioned to assist the livestock farmer to optimize his or her trade. Livestock farmers should be wary of such suppliers as they may be peddling sub-standard or even fake livestock inputs to livestock farmers. Another challenge facing input suppliers emanated from the privatization of animal health and production services by the Bretton Wood institutions in the 1980s and 1990s. This policy has made services of input suppliers unavailable to many small-scale livestock farmers. The concept of training local livestock farmers as Community Animal Health Workers to perform basic animal health procedures in their livestock communities has led to antagonism between them and qualified Veterinary Officers. Whilst the concept is laudable, its implementation was fraught with unforeseen challenges. In a good number of African countries, there is a lack of definitive policy to guide and govern the operations of livestock input suppliers. Under this situation, suppliers can sell whatever they want, irrespective of whether it is good or 62 sub-standard. Even where policies exist, there is a lack of monitoring and evaluation to ascertain whether the policy directives are working as intended. Livestock input suppliers also face logistical challenges in serving livestock farmers in the hinterland or remote areas. The number of potential sales to be made may not make a business sense to serve such communities without support from the government or the donor community. It is therefore understandable, if livestock farmers in such areas are not adequately served. A contemporary development in the input supplying subsector has been the ability to access market information on some of the livestock inputs around the clock using a smart phone. Such market information systems give farmers several options as to which input they should purchase and from which business entity. Rising population growth, urbanization and increasing incomes have been found to be fueling increased demand for livestock products (Pica-Ciamarra and Otte, 2011). To be able to feed more mouths, the supply of livestock products need to increase, which would in turn require more livestock inputs to be purchased to meet the increased demand. Another opportunity in the livestock inputs supply sub-sector is the establishment of the African Continental Free Trade Area which would enhance intra-Africa, including cross-border ones. Increased trade in livestock inputs is being anticipated in the coming years. Digitalization is also another opportunity that is influencing the livestock inputs trade. This development is making inputs 63 trade more efficient, faster and smarter. It may even make the sourcing of livestock inputs cheaper from outside the continent than from within, given the logistics involved in such trade. The internet and other information and communication technologies have thrown open the market for these inputs worldwide. Companies therefore are looking for customers from around the world and are on national web platforms and social media advertising their products. This is also a contemporary development as far as the livestock input supply system is concerned. Projecting into the future, the livestock input supply subsector’s outlook looks bright and there is bound to be expansion and consolidation in the sector as it grows, to take advantage of economies of scale. More inputs would be required to produce more live animals, meat, eggs, milk and other processed livestock products. Livestock inputs supplier who properly position themselves and target specific customers would reap excellent results. 64 CHAPTER ELEVEN LIVESTOCK SLAUGTERING AND PROCESSING Livestock slaughtering and processing have been done on the African continent from time immemorial. This is seen in the number of slaughter houses or abattoirs scattered across major cities and towns of Africa. These abattoirs are either owned by the government, quasi-government agencies, livestock traders’ associations or private individuals. The work of the slaughter houses is supervised by the Ministry of Health and Animal Health authorities and they undertake on-the-spot inspection of them routinely. The former ensures that animals are slaughtered under hygienic conditions and the necessary health standards and protocols are followed, whilst the latter sees to it that the animals slaughtered and the resulting livestock products are disease-free, wholesome and healthy. There are also standards for transporting animals to abattoirs before slaughter to ensure that resulting meat is fresh and wholesome. Large-scale commercial livestock and poultry farms have their own abattoirs on the farms but are under the supervision of Animal Health Officers. Diseased animals and meat are culled from the lot and destroyed so that they are not sold to the general public. Modern abattoirs and processing facilities are automated and digitized and are faster, smarter and efficient and can handle large number of animals and poultry per day. Modern advanced technological developments such as Big Data, Artificial Intelligence, Internet of Things, Sensors, among 65 others are finding their application in large-scale commercial livestock processing facilities in Africa. In Africa, there is very little or no value addition to livestock products coming out of our abattoirs. Most of the animals exported are live animals such as beef cattle, sheep and goats, camels, which are exported to Europe and the Middle East countries. Further processing of outputs from the abattoirs into products such as cheese, yoghurt, sausages, bacon, steaks, etc. are often targeted at the high end of the market but this constitutes a small fraction of the market. In addition, hotels in Africa serve these livestock products to their customers. Processed livestock food manufacturers and vendors also target consumers at parties and festive occasions with their products. The setting up of Supermarket chains and Shopping Malls, which is a contemporary development in Africa, has consolidated the market for selling processed livestock products and made it easier for large number of consumers to be reached at a few selling points at the same time. This development has made the making of processed livestock products a lucrative venture in Africa. Neighborhood meat and grocery shops have also sprung up and have become an attractive business enterprise in Africa. They cut and wrap meat for sale to their customers. The degree of hygiene in these neighborhood shops are much higher than those in local markets. Consequently, high-end income earners find them attractive, even though the prices charged tend to be higher than comparable products on the local market. 66 A good of number of livestock products are still processed by the addition of salt to meats or are simply dried or smoked to extend their shelf-life. Such processed livestock products are patronized by the low-end of market. However, in some African countries, these products are relished across the entire strata of the population. However, there is the need to tighten regulatory regimes that govern small-scale processed livestock products, so that unwholesome or bad meat do not get sold to the public. Demand of livestock products is increasing and this trend would continue into the future. Factors responsible for this development are population growth, urbanization and increased income. Africa’s increasing middle- and high-end class would continue to patronize processed livestock products. As such, the livestock processing industry would continue to thrive. The livestock processing sector in Africa, however, faces key challenges, which must be addressed, if the sector is to attain the accelerated growth being anticipated in the livestock sector. A good number of personnel in Africa’s abattoirs lacks formal training, which needs to be addressed, if they are to shoulder effectively the responsibilities required of them in this sector. Formal training in the operation of a modern automated and digitized abattoir should be given to these personnel. They should also be schooled on how to maintain high levels of hygiene in the abattoirs. The shortage of livestock processing personnel for livestock products such as 67 sausages, bacon, yoghurts, cheese, among others should be addressed. Actors in the livestock value chains should be given credit facilities to enable them provide refrigerated or cold storage facilities from the farm to the final consumers of meat and other livestock products. The credit facility can be in the form of a soft loan to these actors, which should be paid back over a period of time. There is also the urgent need to introduce stricter standards and safety measures, so that unwholesome meat and processed livestock products do not get sold to the general public. The possibility of introducing a traceability mechanism in the entire livestock value chains in Africa should be explored and instituted, if found feasible. Currently, some beef cattle exporting countries in Africa such as Botswana and Namibia have put in place excellent traceability systems to help trace diseases to their ultimate source. This practice can help other African countries to enter the lucrative export market for meat and other livestock products. With the establishment of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), cross-border and intra-African trade in meat and livestock products are bound to increase and there is the need to put in place the required standards and food safety measures to make it successful. The future of livestock processing looks bright as the increased demand for meat and other processed livestock products in Africa is bound to continue. For the processing sub-sector to take advantage of these opportunities, the challenges in the 68 livestock value chains in Africa highlighted above should be addressed. The needed modernization in the slaughtering and processing facilities in Africa should be undertaken, so that large volumes of livestock animals can be processed within shorter periods of time. 69 CHAPTER TWELVE CLIMATE CHANGE AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION One of the contemporary challenges facing the livestock sector in the world, and Africa for that matter, is the adverse effects of climate change. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nation (2013) the livestock sector emits about 14.5-18 percent of global greenhouses gases(GHGs) into the atmosphere. However, one cannot be precise about the emissions from the livestock sector since the data are not updated frequently as in the other sectors that also contribute to GHGs such as the transportation and industrial sectors. These gases include methane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide and they are emitted mainly by cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats. Of the total emissions from livestock, methane accounts for 44 percent, whilst that of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide are 29 percent and 27 percent, respectively. (Sarkwa, TimpongJones, Assuming-Bediako, Aikins and Adogla-Bessa, 2016). These authors also stated that when livestock products are compared in terms of their GHG emissions, beef contributes the most at 41 percent of the total emissions, whilst that of milk is 20 percent. Rojas-Downing, Nejadhashemi, Harrigan and Woznicki (2017) have identified climate change as one of the major stressors on livestock production in the world. This is manifested in its adverse effects on the quality and quantity of feed for livestock, water availability, livestock diseases and livestock reproduction. In seeking to address the effects of climate change on the livestock sector in Africa, two major 70 approaches are used; namely (i) reducing Greenhouse gases emission from livestock animals and allied activities associated with livestock production (ii) adaptation measures to reduce the adverse effects of climate change, and both approaches can be implemented jointly. Before we delve into the nitty gritty of each of the measures available for curbing the adverse effects of GHGs, let us take a look at the adverse effects of climate change on the livestock sector. Climate change can lead to high temperatures and humidity, which results in excessive lignification of feed resources and render its nutrients unavailable to livestock animals for maintenance and production and reproduction purposes. The excess heat from the high temperatures and humidity also reduce the metabolic rates of livestock animals and make them less productive. The quantity of feed resources available to livestock also reduces due to lack of water for photosynthesis of grass, plants and shrubs. The livestock animals themselves may also lack adequate water for production. Under such harsh conditions, livestock animals would have to be watered or water sprayed or sprinkled on them to reduce the heat stress and lower their metabolic rates. For grazing animals, another ameliorative measure is to plant trees in the pastures and rangelands that can be used as shade for the animals during the heat of the day. Climate change can also lead to excessive rainfall resulting in floods. Under such conditions, livestock animals can be swept away by the floods, unless they are properly housed or evacuated to safer grounds before the emergence of the 71 floods. Floods can also destroy available feed resources for the animals, which may require the practice of strategic feed supplementation or the animals moved to new grazing grounds. Both high and low temperatures and humidity may expose the animals to different types of diseases and parasites. The immunity of the animals can be lowered during such periods and make them succumb to diseases and parasites easily. Again, excess heat and low temperatures can make the animals less reproductive and prevent them from coming on heat and mating as they are used to. This may be due to hormonal imbalances and other adverse effects on their physiology. It is now possible to use various measures to reduce the emission of GHGs and the impact of climate change in the world. Livestock animals can now be fed with diets or feedstuffs that result in reduced GHGs being emitted into the atmosphere. Feed efficiency utilization for livestock animals needs to be enhanced so that less GHGs and wastes are exuded into the environment. Various feed resources are also currently being evaluated for their capacity to emit less GHGs when eaten by livestock animals. Computer software programs are now available that enable the livestock farmer to match diets to livestock animals based on their physical profile and the environment in which they are being reared. This is area of animal science, including livestock-climate change interactions, that more work needs to be done to 72 come out with location-specific adaptation and mitigation recommendations. Furthermore, various breeding programs have been initiated to identify and select animals that are hardy to the harsh conditions of climate change and also emit lesser GHGs. Breeding of climate-resilient livestock animals holds the key in addressing the negative impacts of climate change on livestock production as the change effected through breeding and selection is more permanent. Methane blocker are now on the market that can be mixed with the feed and water fed to livestock animals, so that they exude less methane into the atmosphere and the manure. Apart from reducing enteric fermentation in the rumen of ruminant animals, proper disposal of manure on the farm is another means by which emission of methane into the atmosphere can be reduced. An interesting development in the global livestock sector is on the implementation of the Paris Climate Agreement reached in 2016 by all nations of the world. This agreement called for the putting in place mitigation and adaptation measures, so that, the rise in temperature does not go beyond 2 degrees centigrade, whilst aiming for a target of 1.5 degrees centigrade. Some activists are advocating that the surest route for achieving this target is to reduce livestock production in the world by 50 percent. For Africans, this may be a painful pill to swallow as a large proportion of its citizens are engaged in livestock production. Whilst this proposition may have merits, it is becoming increasingly clear that climate change is 73 catching up with us and there is the urgent need to take urgent measures to save the situation. Ehui and co-workers (2020) have noted that whilst droughts used to occur in some parts of Africa every twelve and half years, this phenomenon now takes place every two and half years. To keep all livestock farmers in Africa in business, whilst effectively managing climate change, calls for new approaches for dealing with this phenomenon. Some of the measures that can be taken include strengthening our early warning systems, so that livestock farmers can have ample time to deal with emerging adverse effects of climate change such as floods, diseases, parasitic infestations and droughts. The possibility of moving the livestock-index based insurance from pilot phases to mainstream appears long overdue. I will discuss this novel insurance scheme extensively in Chapter 13. To save pastoralists in Africa, there is also the need to sink boreholes for watering livestock animals, especially during the dry seasons and periods of drought. From the discourse of this chapter, it is clear that climate change has caught up with us and the earlier novel solutions are found to deal with it the better for the livestock industry in Africa. 74 CHAPTER THIRTEEN LIVESTOCK SUSTAINABILITY WITH RESPECT TO THE ENVIRONMENT Livestock production is said to be sustainable, when it is economically viable and optimal outputs can be obtained, with little or no adverse effects on the physical environment and contributes in building the community in which it is practiced socially. When viewed with a generational lens, sustainable livestock meets the needs of the present generation as well as that of future generation. In this context, sustainable livestock borrows the resources of FUTURE generation to meet the needs of CURRENT generation. The past few years have witnessed an increased advocation for livestock production that is not only productive but also sustainable. The reasons are not far-fetched. Livestock is a contributor of greenhouse gases, namely carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide that cause climate change. Climate change is seen in the increased frequency and intensity of droughts, floods and other inclement weather conditions that occur in Africa. It is estimated that livestock emits about 7.1GT of carbon dioxide equivalent per year, which represents about 14.5 percent of human-induced greenhouse gas emission (World Bank, 2022). Another reason why sustainable livestock is needed now is that natural resources, particularly land and water and in some communities feed, are getting depleted. In a 2021 publication focusing on land, soils, and water, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations noted that these resources are at their breaking point and therefore calls 75 for their judicious use for food and agriculture production. It further noted that if this call is not heeded, there would not be not enough water for human use in some communities in the next couple of years. Yet another reason why emphasis is being placed on sustainable livestock production today, is that, it leads to efficient use of livestock inputs, which results in increased livestock production efficiencies. Wastage of livestock inputs such as water and feed which can pollute the physical environment are also minimized under sustainable livestock production system. In this regard, sustainable livestock production leads to food and nutrition security, human well-being and good environmental stewardship. Given that majority of livestock farmers in Africa are poor, the question that readily comes to mind is that can Africa ever attain livestock sustainability? The answer to this question is a resounding Yes but African livestock farmers need to be educated on the merits and benefits of sustainable livestock production. The livestock sector in Africa is grossly underfunded and therefore it should be resourced adequately and made attractive to investors and the youth. Some of the benefits of sustainable livestock production that come to mind are that it can be a significant generator of foreign exchange for some countries in Africa, if adopted. Another benefit is that sustainable livestock can lead to selfsufficiency in livestock products in some African countries and prevent or minimize the use of hard foreign currency to import livestock products. Sustainable livestock can also generate sustainable employment, especially for the youth and women. 76 Yet again, sustainable livestock can lead to affordable livestock products and prevent stunting and hunger in Africa. Sustainable livestock can also curtail land degradation in Africa. Balehegn and co-workers (2021) pointed out that about 48 percent of rangelands in Sub-Saharan Africa are degraded as a result of overgrazing. This could have been prevented, if sustainable livestock was practiced. Finally, and more importantly, sustainable livestock can woo proponents that claim that livestock is a significant contributor to greenhouse gases and therefore should be banned to support the sector. There are currently several institutions supporting and promoting sustainable livestock production in Africa. These include the African Union, which is raising awareness about the need to adopt sustainable livestock production and allocate increased financial and material resources to the livestock sector in Africa. The Food and Agriculture Organization partnered by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) also launched a program called “Africa Sustainable Livestock 2050 (ASL2050)”, which modelled the demand and risk factors in the livestock in Africa over the next 30 to 40 years as well as opportunities for economic gains from the sector (FAO, 2017). The FAO is also promoting agro-ecology, which includes organic livestock production, as part of its efforts to promote sustainable livestock in the world, including Africa. The World Bank also promotes sustainable livestock investment projects and has developed a dedicated webbased platform or guide for developing sustainable livestock 77 production systems. This platform can be found at www.sustainablelivestockguide.org, which gives information for both sustainable livestock projects that are “in preparation” and sustainable livestock projects that are “in implementation”. A multi-stakeholder partnership coalition, called the Global Agenda for Sustainable Livestock (GASL), has also been formed to advocate for sustainable livestock and ensure that sustainable livestock contributes to the sustainable development. The Songhai Centre located in Porto Novo in the Republic of Benin, and led by Rev. Father Dr. Godfrey Nzamujo, is also promoting sustainable livestock through a model farm that he had established. This farm teaches an integrated and sustainable farming system, whereby livestock, crop and aquaculture production are combined and the faeces from the animals are used to fertilize the crops and serve as feed to fish as well as energy production for the farm. The livestock in turn, also feed on the stubbles and cereal crops on the farm. A good number of farmers from Africa have been trained on this farm. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is yet another leading advocate for sustainable livestock production on the African continent. This institute undertakes research on all aspects of sustainable livestock production in Africa. There are several pathways to achieving sustainable livestock production in Africa. Developing policies and regulations that make livestock more productive and also sustainable is one of 78 them. Research also needs to be carried out on the development of livestock breeds, especially for cattle, sheep, goats and pigs that emit little or no Greenhouse gases (GHG). It has been established that emission of GHG is a heritable trait and therefore it should be possible to develop and or select livestock breeds that emit less GHGs (Vaughan, 2019). Also, nutritious livestock feed (grass and leguminous crops) should be bred that leads to little or no emission of GHG when eaten by livestock animals. Animal welfare should also be practiced when raising livestock sustainably, as this practice enables the innate potential of livestock animals to be realized, in the form of, increased growth rate, higher feed utilization efficiency and better reproductive outcomes. Precision livestock feeding, where the requirements of livestock in terms of feed, water and medication, is tailored precisely to the actual requirements of the animals with no wastage what so ever. This system of production leads to no pollution of the physical environment with wastes from livestock production and livestock inputs are optimally used to achieve maximal outputs and profits. Organic livestock production which debars the use of hormones, inorganic fertilizers and genetically modified feed ingredients is yet another means by which sustainable livestock production can be achieved. Feed certifications bodies have also been established to ensure that the feed given to livestock animals are wholesome, true-totype and are not from GMOs. Several new feed technologies have been developed, which enhances feed utilization efficiencies and the sustainability of livestock production. These include yeast and enzyme technologies, grain 79 management technology, microencapsulation, and functional fatty acids technology, among others. For livestock animals raised on pastures and rangelands, it is always better to match the animals to the available feed resources or their carrying capacities, if one is practicing sustainable livestock production. This ensures that overgrazing and its attendant land degradation do not occur. Lastly, proper disposal of manure and beddings of livestock are required when one is practicing sustainable livestock as manure can lead to greenhouse gas emission to the surrounding environment. To conclude this chapter, a clarion call to action to livestock stakeholders in Africa is being made, for them, to advocate for sustainable livestock production and also to solicit for increased allocation of financial resources to the livestock sector, where this is feasible. 80 CHAPTER FOURTEEN LIVESTOCK MARKETING AND TRADE The 4Ps of marketing was proposed by Professor Jerome McCarthy in 1960 and still continues to be the pivot on which marketing is done. The Ps represent Product, Place, Price and Promotion. For the livestock sector, the P representing products include the live animals and birds themselves, meat (beef, chevron, veal, mutton, chicken meat and pork), eggs, cattle and small ruminant milk, hides and processed meat such as sausages, bacon, corned beef, boiled, fried and grilled meat. Various livestock species are being reared on the African continent and livestock processing enterprises are currently in operation producing livestock products for the African continent and exports abroad. The P representing the place for marketing livestock and livestock products can be on a farm, a physical market, supermarkets, grocery stores, electronic marketplace, a commodity exchange, livestock show and bazaar, livestock exhibitions, and exporting the product abroad or to other African countries. Africa has several livestock farms and markets where various live animals are sold and purchased. Some farms have processing facilities and abattoirs, where animals are dressed and processed. The livestock products are either sold on the farm or in supermarkets, grocery stores and shopping malls. Commodity exchanges have been established in some African countries, where livestock animals are traded. Livestock shows and bazaars are also held regularly for the 81 consuming public to patronize livestock products or purchase live animals. The P representing price can be arrived at after calculating the cost of production and adding a margin of profit to it, if one purchased it from the livestock farmer. There are also middlemen, who buy the product from the farm gate and add their margin of profit after factoring in the cost of transporting the product to the point where it is sold. The price of live animals and livestock products is determined by supply and demand. Demand often peaks during festive occasions such Christmas and festivals in Africa, when insufficient supply of livestock and chicken meat pushes the price upwards. The development of ICT, including the internet has now made it possible for livestock farmers and middlemen in the livestock trade to access real time information on prices of both livestock animals and livestock products through a marketing information system and a website where such information is posted. Price incentives should be offered to the consuming public to stimulate the market, when supply is more than the demand for livestock products. The last P represents promotion. In the past, promotion was done using the print, television and radio advertisements to promote livestock sales and trade. Organization of livestock shows, bazaars and exhibitions by livestock associations and national governments was and is another means by which livestock and poultry products are promoted and sold. Celebrity endorsement of livestock products is another way by which livestock products are marketed and sold. Erecting of 82 physical billboards advocating for livestock products should be done. However, with the advent of the internet and other information and communication technologies (ICT), online advertising using pop-up adverts and websites have become prominent in contemporary times. Marketing on social media such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter should be vigorously pursued. When a website is being used to promote livestock products, it is needful to optimize its listing on the search engines, so that a buyer using a search engine such as Google can have this website listed among the first outputs of the search. The establishment of an electronic marketplace is another option that needs to be explored in Africa. This is an online platform for both buyers and sellers of livestock animals and livestock products, where they can trade or do business. This can be established by private individuals, livestock cooperatives, livestock associations or the national government. For a marketplace to be successful, there is the need to develop an acceptable grading and weighing system on which prices can be uniformly determined. For example, if Grade A live animal is sold for 100 dollars, every participant in the marketplace will have such an information. A buyer can therefore part with his or her 100 dollars knowing at the end of transaction that he or she will be getting a Grade A animal. The owner of the electronic marketplace takes a commission when a livestock animal is sold on the platform. It is also needful to provide an online payment system where payment for the livestock animal can be made as well as a logistics system for transporting the live animal to the buyer at a predetermined fee. Presently, COMESA has come out with a 83 grading system for livestock for the COMESA member countries. This can either be adapted for the entire African continent or an entirely new livestock grading system for Africa for each livestock specie and class can be developed. Indeed, there is the urgent need to come out with a standardized mechanism for marketing and trading in live animals in Africa. An African Sanitary and Phyto-sanitary standards or measures should be adapted for the African continent. This call has become even more significant with the establishment of the African Continental Free Trade Area. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nation (2017) reported of an increased demand for animalsourced foods in Africa. It stated that by 2050, the meat market in Africa will increase to 24.8 million tonnes, whilst milk will be 82.6 million tonnes, which are an increase of 145 and 185 percent, respectively over 2006. Marketing protocols therefore need to be established and strengthened in Africa for livestock trade. This will enhance market access for livestock producers and traders and improve intra-African trade. It clearly does not make sense for livestock producing countries to strive to meet stringent Sanitary Phytosanitary standards abroad, when the same product can be sold in Africa. Neither, is it acceptable for beef to be imported from Argentina, when the same product can be obtained cheaply from African countries such as Botswana and Namibia. The African Continental Free Trade Area has ushered Africa into a new era where market access for livestock products should no longer be a problem for livestock farmers on the continent. 84 With the negative publicity, livestock is receiving in recent times, there is the need to develop and implement a concerted promotional campaigns for livestock products in Africa. High-profile personalities and celebrities should be requested to endorse livestock products and publicly talk about its merits and unique properties to human nutrition and health. Various promotional contests should be organized to attract more consumers of livestock products. There is also the need to properly position livestock products in the minds of consumers in Africa and disabuse their minds about negative perceptions being associated with livestock products. Furthermore, the assistance of public relation companies and personnel should be solicited to effectively address these emerging problems associated with some livestock products and livestock production itself. Various promotional briefs and advocacy materials should also be developed for informing and educating the general public on these negative emerging issues. Dedicated livestock association and industry websites should be created to assist in addressing the afore-mentioned problems in the livestock sector. The home-grown school feeding programs, being implemented in many African countries can also be a channel through which livestock and poultry products are sold to school pupils and students and thereby help meet their protein requirements. The livestock sector in Africa is in a unique time and with proper planning and increased investments, the huge market it potentially has, can be harnessed for the betterment of livestock farmers and livestock-dependent economies in Africa. 85 CHAPTER FIFTEEN INDEX-BASED LIVESTOCK INSURANCE Index-based Livestock Insurance is a novelty in the African continent. It is a scheme under which livestock farmers are compensated in the event of loss of livestock animals due to climatic conditions beyond their control (International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), 2020). Pioneered by ILRI on a pilot basis with other partners in pastoral communities in Kenya, this scheme has proven to be an excellent way of compensating livestock farmers in times of inclement weather, Before the scheme was introduced, livestock animals used to lose a large number of animals either due to drought, floods or disease outbreaks. With the frequency, intensity and duration of droughts having increased in recent decades (Ehui, Kray and Mghenyi, 2020), the index-based livestock insurance will assist many livestock farmers from losing their entire livelihoods and being reduced to penury. The Index-based livestock insurance depends on a communal shared risk instead of an individual one, so it requires a critical mass of livestock farmers to subscribe to the scheme for its success. In livestock communities in Africa, where the level of poverty is high, national governments and or development partners may have to step in and assist in paying the insurance fees required by Insurance companies for livestock farmers. Payment of premiums are based on weather forecasting data that predict whether adequate feed resources would become available to livestock farmers over a certain period of time or whether disease outbreaks are being anticipated. The severity of the 86 impact of the weather conditions determines how much livestock farmers are paid or compensated. The greater the impact on their livelihoods, the higher premiums they receive. An effective weather forecasting system is therefore required for its effective application in this insurance scheme. As such, communities without such facilities cannot benefit from this scheme. In times of bad weather conditions, the weather forecasting system will issue an early warning to livestock farmers to move their animals to safer grounds and provide adequate feed for them. The premiums received can also be used to purchase feed and medication for the livestock animals. In situations where the livestock farmer does not desire to continue maintaining the animals, they can be sold and the money used to meet family or personal needs. This insurance scheme also enables livestock farmers to sell their animals at a time they are likely to secure better prices for them than if they were to dispose them off after a disaster had struck. Gebrekidan and co-workers (2019) investigated the effect of index-based insurance on herd offtake in the Borena zone of Southern Ethiopia and discovered that the indexbased insurance reduces herd offtake among the livestock farmers. This is because their worry and fear of losing their herds had been removed as a result of subscribing to this insurance scheme. In another study in the same country, Takahashi and colleagues (2016) found that premium subsidies paid to livestock farmers had an immediate and positive impact on uptake of the insurance scheme. It has also been established that this livestock insurance scheme is equally subscribed to by both men and women (Bageant and 87 Barrett, 2015). As such, the same communication and information messages can be used advertise the insurance scheme to both male and female. Ntukamazina et al, (2017) found that uptake of livestock index-based insurance was positively correlated with on-farm income or savings, literacy and family size. This finding is quite understandable because literate farmers with money can afford the insurance fees and therefore should be more willing to subscribe to this insurance scheme. Index-based insurance is a recent development in both the insurance and animal agriculture sectors in Africa, which must be given the needed attention and support for it to assist livestock farmers. Attractive premiums should continue to be paid to livestock farmers to attract them to subscribe and also the premiums should be promptly by the insurance companies. An awareness creation of this insurance scheme in African countries where it exists should be vigorously pursued, so that livestock farmers in that country can subscribe to it. Furthermore, given the complex nature in which premiums are calculated and paid to livestock farmers, they must be sufficiently informed and educated about the scheme. This can be done by Livestock Extension and Advisory Services in Africa with support from national governments and development partners. Cognizant of the need for thorough understanding and appreciation of how an index-based livestock insurance operated, ILRI and other partners engaged consultants to develop a training manual on this insurance scheme for pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in Africa. This training manual is available online, which can be used by 88 Livestock Extension and Advisory Services for training livestock farmers in Africa. Reports from Kenya, where this insurance scheme was first piloted indicate that the exaggerated expectations of livestock farmers in the scheme were not met (Johnson, Wandera, Jensen and Banerjee, 2019). This is not because of the insurance scheme itself but due to unfulfilled expectations by the insurance companies. These authors therefore called for managed expectations, transparency and reflection of stakeholders in selling and buying this insurance. Ntukamazina et al. (2017) have also catalogued some of the challenges that affect the uptake of index-based insurance products in SubSaharan Africa as weakness of the regulatory environment, poor financial facilities, basis risks, quality and availability of historical data in the country. These reports and findings notwithstanding, index-based insurance can potentially help address the perennial climate risks that livestock farmers in Africa face and enable them keep their livelihoods. Other reports from West Africa have revealed that livestock farmers in that region are willing to subscribe to this insurance tools if made available to them (Fava, Upton, Banerjee, Taye and Mude, 2018). Index-based insurance is potent tool developed in recent times to address the perennial problem of livestock losses due to drought, floods and other challenges due to inclement weather conditions. This kind of insurance has been successfully tested in some countries in Eastern and Western Africa and the outcomes were satisfactory to livestock 89 farmers. It can effectively promote livestock production in Africa when mainstreamed on the entire continent. 90 CHAPTER SIXTEEN PROVISION OF CREDIT, FINANCING AND INVESTMENTS IN THE LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY OF AFRICA Lack of or inadequate provision of credit, financing and investments continues to be the bane of the livestock sector in Africa. Yet these credit and financing facilities are needed for the effective and efficient functioning of the livestock sector. In the advanced countries, various subsidies, credit, financing and investments as well as other services are provided for their livestock sector. The resultant effect is that their livestock enterprises are often more competitive than those in Africa and this encourages importation of livestock products to Africa. Livestock credits are used for infrastructural development on the farm, purchase of feeds, livestock drugs, vaccines and livestock machinery and tools. Studies conducted by Jabber and Colleagues (2002) in major livestock producing countries in Africa such as Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Nigeria have revealed that public credit institutions do not have sufficient funds to satisfy the demand for livestock credit. Furthermore, the available credit could not reach livestock farmers who need it most. Yet, the livestock sector in Africa is a capital-intensive one. These authors therefore advocated that both public and commercial finance should be combined to address the problem of inadequate credit supply to livestock farmers and other stakeholders in Africa. The work of Amos and Ayanda (2004) also revealed there is marginalization of the livestock sector in the provision of credit to the agricultural sector in Africa. 91 Reviewing an Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme in Nigeria from 1978 to 2002, they discovered that just 10 percent and 20 percent of the approved credit in terms of number and volume, respectively went to the livestock sector. The volume of credit was found to be insufficient to discernably boost production of livestock products in that country. Perhaps, the reason for the low allocation of credit to the livestock sector is the perceived risk associated with livestock sector financing in Africa. Adam (2018) has enumerated other factors that prevent credits from being given to the livestock sector as (i) existential risks such as pest infestations and adverse effects of climatic conditions (ii) lack of reach of many small-scaled livestock producers in Africa, with its attendant high service delivery and monitoring costs, and (iii) the perception that livestock is not a strategically important sector in many nonlivestock predominant countries. Some of the risk mitigation measures that can be undertaken include (i) setting up of risksharing fund by national governments for the livestock sector (Adam, 2018) (ii) livestock index-based insurance (iii) channel digital financing such as MPESA in Kenya and Mobile Money in Ghana to the livestock sector, and (iv) grants for livestock enterprises. Financing and investments are urgently needed in all facets of livestock production, inputs supply, trade and marketing. This problem has been noted by the higher political echelon in Africa. Following the 9th Ministerial Conference of African Ministers of Livestock held in Abidjan, Cote d’Ivoire in 2013, a livestock strategy has been developed by the African Union Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources (AU-IBAR) for 92 attracting investments into the livestock sector in Africa. In addition, one of the Malabo commitments made by the Heads of States of the African Union in 2014 was a call to African countries to provide affordable financing mechanisms to the agricultural sector, including that of livestock. A good headway is being made in this regard in Africa. Apart from risk, another factor that could be hindering the livestock sector from receiving adequate is the raising of the needed collateral for credits and loans. Using livestock animals and poultry themselves as a collateral is an option that needs to be given serious attention by financial companies and intermediaries in Africa. Currently, some African countries such as Zimbabwe and Botswana are using this financing mechanism to provide badly needed financial support to their livestock sector, which must be emulated by all African countries. Furthermore, value chain financing can be a potent mechanism for meeting the financial needs of livestock farmers in Africa. This is evident in the MAFISA-NERPO Livestock Credit Scheme instituted in South Africa, which has enabled over 80 percent of the participating small-scaled livestock farmers to earn an average annual amount of 30,000 US dollars (Fakudze and Machethe, 2014). Since, majority of livestock farmers are small-scaled ones, this option needs to be given serious attention. Yet another financing option available to small-scale livestock farmers in Africa is for them to receive credit in the form of animals and poultry as well as other inputs for them to rear the animals themselves for their livelihood. This is being 93 financed by Non-governmental organizations such as Heifer International and some African financial institutions. A good number of private and public foundations are also providing financial support to the livestock sector. African governments have also provided several financing interventions that are assisting the livestock sector to secure badly needed credits and loans for their enterprises. These include (i) the establishment of agricultural/livestock development financial institutions and other financial intermediaries such as rural banks, (ii) Setting up of ExportImport (Exim) banks (iii) Creation of continental financial institutions such as the African Development Bank, Afrexim Bank, among others, and (iv) establishment of specialized livestock programs in Africa, where significant financial and material resources are channeled. In addition, some governments in Africa provide tax incentives to the livestock sector to bring relief to the livestock sector. To attract investments to the livestock sector in Africa, there is the need to establish public-private partnerships (PPP) for large-scale livestock projects and enterprises. There is also the need to create a livestock investment promotion agency or set up a unit within an existing investment promotion agency at the national level to canvass for investments for the sector. Livestock investment maps can be developed to guide investors in making these investments. Other financing mechanisms available are from venture capitalists, who provide financing in exchange for owning part of the livestock enterprise. Also, there are various 94 cooperatives and associations in the livestock sector that provide both financial and material resources to their members. Micro-finance institutions, which is a recent development in the financial sector, is assisting especially small and medium-scale livestock enterprises in growing their businesses. Another option available to livestock farmers in financing their farms is from personal savings and loans secured from family members and friends. In conclusion, it is evident from above that livestock farmers in Africa have various financing options for raising capital to finance their farms and operations. 95 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN LIVESTOCK RESEARCH, EXTENSION AND ADVISORY SERVICES Africa’s population is growing rapidly and it is projected to increase from its current population of 1.434 billion to about 2.489 billion by 2050 (Worldometer, 2023). The incomes of Africans are also increasing (World Bank, 2018). These developments would lead to an increased demand for livestock products. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN) (2009) has also projected that food production in Africa should increase by 70 percent if Africa is to feed its population. This calls for a more efficient approach to producing livestock products. Livestock productivity in Africa is one of the lowest in the world (Enahoro, Mason-D’Croz, Rich, Robinson and Thornton, 2019; Ocran, 2020). To enhance productivity of livestock animals and poultry, livestock research and development need to be prioritized. Presently, the quantum of financial resources allocated to livestock research in African countries is very low. It is less than the 1 percent of Agricultural Gross Domestic Product (AgGDP) that NEPAD-AUDA advocated that member states of the African Union should allocate for agricultural research. Furthermore, it is also less than 1 to 1.5 percent of AgGDP that the Global Forum on Agricultural Research requested countries in the world should allocate for effective research at the national level. The same emphasis on adequate funding for research in Africa has been made by the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA), an apex organization coordinating agricultural research in Africa; in its 96 Science Agenda for Agriculture in Africa. In the book on “Agricultural Research in Africa- Investing in Future” edited by Dr John Lynam and co-workers, it was pointed out that the rates of return on investment in agricultural research is in the order of about 40 to 60 percent. These figures were arrived at based on several studies conducted on this subject matter. Yet, financing of livestock research continues to be a challenge in Africa. Most of the funding for livestock research comes from governmental sources, which is often inadequate. Donor funding is sometimes used to fill in the financing gap. Private sector contribution to livestock research is a piecemeal. The resultant effect of this financial shortfall is that animal scientists are made to do with out-of-date or dysfunctional scientific equipment and facilities, as most of the subventions from national governments are used for operational expenses. Furthermore, the limited funding is spread thinly over a large range of research topics and programs, leading to low impact. Livestock scientists and administrators are also not well remunerated, as a result of which they are poorly motivated. These challenges call for a more sustainable financing mechanism to be devised, implemented and managed for livestock research in Africa so that new technologies in livestock can be developed or adapted to the Africa situation. Levies on imported livestock products, machinery and tools could also be a sustainable means of funding livestock research in Africa but the collection of levies is often fraught with challenges. The structural adjustment programs of the World Bank in the 1980s and 90s for a good number of African countries brought in a sizeable amount of financing for 97 National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) in Africa. Some of the money from World Bank enabled some of the NARS to retool and refurbish their infrastructure and facilities. Part of the World Bank money under the structural adjustment program was used for training and capacity development of scientists and other staff of research institutions and universities in Africa. Under this program also some of the NARs in Africa were supported with seed money to establish national competitive research grants scheme that provided funding to scientists in both African universities and research institutes to carry out research and develop agricultural technologies for farmers. In addition to that, national research programs on livestock and other crops were set up to develop innovations for farmers. Policy disincentives to livestock research need to be removed. In doing so, the linkage between livestock researchers and policy or decision makers should be bridged, so that livestock research can be given priority at national Level. Livestock Scientists also sometimes collaborate with their counterparts in the CGIAR centers, such as the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), based in Nairobi, Kenya and through that receive financial and material support for their work. ILRI has currently several livestock research programs scattered across Africa. Almost all African countries have National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), which undertake research activities on various livestock issues. These institutions vary in size, strength and capabilities, However, majority of them are small 98 and fragmented. The larger NARS’s such as those in South Africa, Kenya, Egypt, Nigeria, Tanzania, Ghana and Nigeria, among others have dedicated research centers and institutions on Livestock. Some of the research undertaken include characterization and preservation of indigenous livestock genetic materials to prevent their extinction; cloning including dolly the sheep developed by South Africa; gene or DNA substitution, epigenetics, various crossbreeding programs between indigenous and temperate breeds to take advantage of heterosis in the crossbreds; selection and estimation of breeding co-efficient for various livestock populations in Africa as well as those on reproduction parameters. Research on the applications of Artificial Intelligence, Robotics, Internet of Things and Nanotechnology in livestock is receiving attention in Africa. What is novel is that gene or DNA markers have shortened the period for identifying breeds with the desired characteristics. In animal nutrition also, it is now possible to rapidly determine the chemical or nutrient composition of various feedstuffs. Growth and digestibility trials would continue to be done and they can be monitored in real time. It is also now easier to determine feed utilization efficiencies and carcass characteristics as well as formulate cheaper and better balanced diets for livestock animals. Various enzymes have also been produced to aid digestion and metabolism in livestock animals and some of them are now being evaluated at the livestock farm level. In-ovo nutrition is also attracting interest in recent times as well as new non-conventional feedstuffs such as animal by-products, agro-industrial by99 products, insects, seaweeds, essential oils, novel enzymes and alga. Clinical trials are also being under taken for drugs for livestock diseases and pests. Vaccines are also being developed and tested in Africa. It is now also easier to undertake epidemiological surveys of livestock animals and poultry to identify, isolate and sick animals. Research work is also being conducted on the effects of mycotoxins in livestock animals as well as on zoonotic diseases. In addition, various research activities had been or are being carried out on livestock production systems, livestock policies and livestock socio-economics in Africa. While research is being carried out, it is pertinent to stress that linkages among animal scientists and researchers, livestock extension and advisory service providers and livestock farmers need to be strengthened so that livestock technologies and innovations can flow seamlessly from researchers to farmers, whilst farmers’ problem gain the attention of researchers. Under the structural adjustment programs of the World Bank/International Monetary Fund, this linkage issue came to the fore and funding was provided for its strengthening in Africa. This was after it was discovered that various livestock technologies were sitting on the shelves of livestock researchers, whilst farmers needed them to boost their output. Joint programming between livestock researchers and livestock farmers should be encouraged and field days organized to inform and educate livestock farmers on new research findings. Visits by livestock scientists and researchers to livestock farmers should also be promoted for researchers to learn at first hand challenges and researchable problems 100 livestock farmers are facing, with extension workers serving as intermediaries. When all these recommendations are implemented, livestock research will be farmer-focused and the impact of research would be felt at the level of the farmer and the consumer. Another challenge affecting the livestock sector in Africa is the inadequate number of livestock extension workers to educate and inform livestock farmers. In most African countries, priority is given to crop extension over livestock extension. Ethiopia has one of the best extension systems in Africa and has been able to post to each village, three extension workers each for livestock, crop and soil. Livestock extension and advisory workers should be able to package livestock technologies and innovation in a manner and language that livestock farmers can understand and adopt them. When, this is done the rate of adoption of livestock technologies and innovation will increase and livestock productivity will also be enhanced. In this internet and other information and communication technologies era, it should not be too difficult to develop, package and disseminate messages on all aspects of livestock production and trade to livestock farmers. In addition to publicly funded livestock research in Africa, research is also undertaken by large-scale private and commercial enterprises. These research are however, on livestock issues with commercial value to the enterprise. 101 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN CONVENTIONAL MEAT AND CULTURED MEAT Our forefathers and my generation have only known conventional meat, where an animal is housed, fed and reared from birth to the time, in which, it is slaughtered and ate as meat. Conventional meat was relished then and is now enjoyed by all meat eaters. Currently, a good number of meat consumers still prefer conventional meat. The era in which meat consumers depended only on conventional meat is no more. A contemporary development on the livestock scene in recent years, is the development of artificial or cultured meat, where a muscle or cell of an animal is cultured in a medium and later harvested as meat. Mckinsey (2021) has given a fivepoint production process for cultured meat. These include: (a) Cells are removed from an animal for culturing (b) Cells are grown in a medium in seed train bioreactors (c) Cells grown to the desired density in bioreactors (d) Cells are harvested via a centrifugation process, and (e) Cells are harvested and made ready for distribution. Several factors are responsible for the development of cultured meat. Notable among them is the negative effect on the environment that livestock production is associated with and therefore the need to find alternatives to conventional meat. Livestock emits greenhouse gases, which cause climate change. So, to curtail climate change, these proponents are advocating that livestock production should be deemphasized as a dietary source of proteins, so that lesser amounts of GHG, notably methane do not get emitted into the 102 surrounding environment. However, the solution to this problem is not as simple as it is being advocated. This is because, whilst methane and nitrous oxide emission are lowered via cultured meat production, that of carbon dioxide had been found to increase (Lynch and Pierrehumbert, 2019). Other writers see conventional meat production through conventional livestock production as simply inefficient. For example, Goodland (1997) found that an acre of land put to cereal production can produce twice to ten times the amount of protein the same land can produce when put to beef cattle production. Another reason some people prefer cultured meat is that both livestock farmers and conventional meat consumers can potentially be exposed to zoonotic diseases such as anthrax, brucellosis, avian influenza, etc., among others, if the appropriate health protocols are not followed in the livestock or meat value chains. However, whilst cultured meat exempts its consumers from zoonotic diseases, they also face high incidence of food-borne diseases, if the prescribed standards and safety measures are not adhered to. Other merits of cultured meat are that it drastically reduces land and freshwater requirements and eliminates animal welfare concerns some people have with regards to conventional meat production (Ocran, 2020b). It is also quicker and more efficient to produce cultured meat than conventional meat. The technologies for producing cultured are increasingly being perfected by the day, which is further lowering the cost of cultured meat. If this trend continues, then meat consumers would prefer cultured meat because it would be cheaper than conventional meat. 103 The cultured meat industry in Africa is in its infancy as such majority of meat consumed by Africans are the conventional ones. Ocran (2020b) has identified the potential of this type of meat in Africa and has outlined what needs to be in place for the cultured meat industry in Africa to take off. These include the acquisition of the technology for developing cultured meat commercially in Africa, the enactment of the required laws and regulations to govern the sector, the setting up of the necessary meat standards and safety measures and the need to address the aesthetic appeal of consumers. The rest are the encouragement of budding entrepreneurs to invest in this sector and the deployment of innovative marketing tools that extol the flavor, texture, taste and aroma of cultured meat as being comparable to that of conventional meat. Carboz (2021) reported of two South African companies, namely Mogale Meat Company and Mzansi Meat Company, which are planning to go into commercial cultured meat production in that country. The coming years may see more companies and individuals venturing into the business of cultured meat in Africa. Cultured meat is not without its own peculiar problems. For example, some conventional meat consumers simply abhor cultured meat due to its aesthetic appeal. To them, cultured meat is not natural. As such, if cultured meat is to become the preferred meat of consumers, then a lot of education needs to be done and innovative marketing strategies deployed to shape the minds of consumers. Another issue worth considering is the fact that conventional meat production via livestock production is a source of livelihood and employment 104 to thousands of poor livestock farmers. As such, the wholesale adoption of cultured meat may disadvantage these farmers and throw most of them out of jobs. Protein intake in Africa is still very low. According to Tankari and Glatzel (2021) the average consumption of meat by Africans is only 19 kg and it is projected that this may increase to about 26 kg by 2050. Presently, Africa lacks the capacity to be self-sufficient in meat because current demand of meat outstrips supply. It should therefore be possible to produce both conventional and cultured meat concurrently. To conclude, cultured meat is a new development that would grow in the years ahead. Africa needs to put its acts together and embrace this technology and encourage its development and growth on the continent. Our average meat intake as a continent, is still very low, so there is the need to find alternative sources of meat to meet our dietary protein requirements. Hopefully, cultured meat technology can help us meet our meat requirements. 105 CHAPTER NINETEEN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, ROBOTICS, AND INTERNET OF THINGS IN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION Artificial Intelligence (AI), Robotics, and Internet of Things (IoT) are a number of new technologies that have the potential to revolutionize the livestock industry in Africa. Artificial Intelligence can be used to develop early warning systems foe diseases such as pneumonia and mastitis This can help livestock farmers to take preventive measures and treat animals early, which can improve their health and welfare. AI can be used to develop more efficient feeding and breeding programs, which can help livestock farmers to produce more meat, milk and eggs from their livestock. Indeed, it is now possible to monitor the feeding, drinking, activity patterns, movements and posture behavior as well as livestock faeces, vocalization and temperature of an animal in real-time using sensors and Artificial Intelligence (Owczarek, 2022) To this end, AI can be used to optimize the use of feed and water resource on the farm. According Owczarek (2022) artificial intelligence can also be used to assist in assessing the quantities of available pastures and match the number of livestock that can feed on a particular pasture. By this way, overgrazing is avoided and overcrowding of livestock at pasture is also prevented. Artificial Intelligence linked to censors and incubators can review available data to ensure the optimal development of embryos, leading to healthier day-old chicks. AI can be also used in conjunction with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to accurately predict the sex of 106 chicks. This saves time and helps in planning the rearing of chicks better. Robots can also be used to perform arduous and repetitive tasks such as feeding and milking of dairy cows, which can be dangerous or time-consuming for humans. Robots can also be used to police livestock in larger ranches, spanning several kilometers. This can free up precious time and enable the livestock farmer or rancher to focus on more important tasks such as breeding and marketing of livestock. Robots can also be used to reduce the amount of land and water needed for livestock production. For example, robots can be used to grow fodder crops in vertical farms, which can save space and water. There are however challenges of adopting AI, Robotics and other technologies in Africa. The cost of AI, robotics and IoT can be barrier for small-scale livestock farmers, who are in the majority in Africa. However, the cost of these technologies is decreasing and there are a number of initiatives underway to make them more affordable for African livestock farmers. Another challenge is that Africa has a limited telecommunications infrastructure, which make it difficult to collect and transmit data from remote areas. However, there is a lot of investment underway to improve telecommunications infrastructure in Africa. This will make it easier to use AI, Robotics and IoT in the livestock industry in Africa. There is also a shortage of skilled labor in Africa in the fields of AI, Robotics, IoT and Data science, which can make it difficult to implement and operate new technologies. 107 However, there are a number of initiatives underway to train Africans on the use of AI, Robotics and IoT. This will help to address the skills shortage and make it easier for Africans to adopt these new technologies. In order for Africans to enjoy the benefits of AI, robotics and IoT in the livestock industry a number of things need to be in place. These include Government support, investment in infrastructure, training of livestock farmers and the provision of financial support to livestock farmers. African governments need to provide support for the development and adoption of these technologies. This could include providing subsidies for the purchase of these technologies, providing training on how these technologies can be used or applied, and developing regulations to govern their use and ensure safe and ethical use of these technologies. Furthermore, African Governments need to invest in infrastructure such as telecommunications networks to support the use of AI, Robotics and IoT. This can also include building new telecommunications towers, laying new fiber optic cables and providing internet access to rural areas. Livestock farmers and other stakeholders need to be trained on how to use these technologies. This can be done through government-funded training programs, private sector training programs or enroll livestock farmers in online training courses. Livestock farmers need access to finance to purchase these technologies. This can be done through governmentbacked loans, microfinance services or crowdfunding platforms. 108 Livestock farmers and scientists or AI specialists seeking to work in the livestock industry in Africa can access training from the African Institute for Mathematical Sciences, which offers a number of training programs in AI. These programs are designed to help African Students develop skills they need to pursue careers in AI, Robotics and IoT. Other institutions that offer programs in this field are the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) based in Trieste, Italy and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) that offers a number of online courses in AI and Robotics. Artificial Intelligence, robotics and IoT have the potential to revolutionize the livestock industry in Africa. However, there are a number of challenges that need to be addressed in order to fully realize this potential. With government support, infrastructure investment, training and financial support, Africans can apply these new technologies in the field of livestock and help to build a more sustainable livestock industry in Africa. 109 CHAPTER TWENTY LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND NANOTECHNOLOGY Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter at the atomic and molecular level. There are diverse nanotechnology applications in the livestock industry and this is receiving increased interest and attention in recent times. It is a rapidly development field that Africans can harness to better its livestock industry. Nanoparticles can be used to deliver vaccines and other drugs to animals more effectively. They can also be used to create new diagnostic tools for tracking and detecting livestock diseases. Nanotechnology can also be used to develop new feed additives that improve animal growth and development. In the same vein, it can be used to make nutrients in diets of livestock more available to them, enhance feed utilization efficiency and reduce the amount of manure or waste from them. Nanotechnology can also be used to create new breeding techniques that produce healthier and more productive animals. It can also be used to develop new methods for reducing pollution from livestock production. To this end, nanoparticles can be used to filter water and air and they can also be used to create new types of manure and wastewater treatment systems and accordingly reduce the environmental footprint of livestock. Overall, nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the livestock industry in Africa. However, there are a number of challenges that need to be addressed before nanotechnology can be widely adopted in the livestock industry. These challenges are that 110 nanotechnology is a relatively new field, and the cost of developing and using nanotechnology-based products can be high and beyond the majority of livestock farmers in Africa. Furthermore, there is currently no regulation of nanotechnology in the livestock industry. This could lead to the use of unsafe and untested nanotechnology-based products. Additionally, there is some public concern, and these are genuine, about the use of nanotechnology in food production. In this regard, this could make it difficult to market nanotechnology-based products to consumers. El Sabry (2018) studied Nano-applications and concluded that they have the potential to provide smarter solutions for various applications in the livestock and poultry production systems. This author further reported that Nano-applications in the livestock industry can help reduce costs and enhance the final quality of livestock products. However, Kuzma and Priest (2010) had earlier cautioned that the necessary oversight, health and environmental safety and other societal issues should be investigated before the application of nanotechnology in animal production is done. Currently, African farms and institutions using nanotechnology are the Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), which is a governmentowned research organizations in Kenya, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) based in Kenya and Ethiopia. ILRI is currently researching on new ways nanotechnology can be applied to improve livestock productivity, reduce livestockrelated diseases and mitigate the environmental impact of 111 livestock production in Africa. Other public research universities working on nanotechnology are South Africanbased universities such as the University of Pretoria, the University of Cape Town and the University of Stellenbosch. Funding source for nanotechnology research and the development of nanotechnology-paid products can come from the private sector companies, especially those which offer leasing and rental programs for new technologies. These programs can make it more affordable for small-scale livestock farmers to access new technologies. There also a number of non-profit organizations that work to promote the adoption of new technologies by small-scale farmers such as the Bill and Melinda Gates foundation, the Rockefeller foundation and among others. These organizations can provide farmers with information about new technologies such as nanotechnology, offer training on how to use new technologies and financial assistance to help farmers to access new technologies. Many African governments offer generous grants and loans to farmers who want to adopt new technologies such as nanotechnology. These grants and loans can help to offset the cost of purchasing and implementing new technologies. They also sometimes provide training of farmers that are keen to adopt new technologies. Africa is made up of 55 independent and sovereign countries and the availability of these sources of funding varies from country to country. Interested African livestock farmers can contact their local government, non-profit organizations and 112 private sector companies and inquire about the availability of grants, loans, leasing and rental programs on nanotechnology. African livestock farmers, practitioners and researchers interested in training programs on nanotechnology can contact the African Network for Nanotechnology Education and Research (ANR). The ANR is a Pan-African network of universities, research institutes and industry partners that works to promote the development of nanotechnology in Africa. ANR provides a number of training programs in nanotechnology, including short courses, workshops and seminars. Another institution that can be contacted for training in nanotechnology is the African Academy of Sciences. This august body offers a number of training programs on nanotechnology. These programs are designed to help African scientists to develop or sharpen their skills they need to conduct research in nanotechnology. Prospective livestock farmers, students and researchers are enjoined to do research to see whether it is a right fit for you before enrolling in any of these training programs 113 CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE CONCLUSION The livestock industry is a major contributor to the African economy, providing food, income, draught power and employment to millions of Africans. In some African countries such as Somalia, Djibouti and Ethiopia, the livestock sector is the bedrock of their economy and this is not going to change anytime soon. The livestock sector continues to be marginalized compared to the crops subsector in terms of resource allocation. The disease burden in the African livestock sector also continues to be high. A number of feed resources have been identified and new feeding technologies have also been developed but these are not being applied by livestock farmers in the rural parts of Africa. Furthermore, new feed resources and feed technologies that have been adopted are yet to be mainstreamed on the continent. That our indigenous livestock breeds are of poor innate potential has been and continues to be an age-long problem. In the midst of this, our rich genetic diversity of our livestock is being eroded and some of them are now extinct. Climate change is also taking its toll on the sector. Livestock research and extension are not being adequately financed in Africa for them to research and deliver improved technologies to livestock farmers in the remote parts of Africa. Furthermore, water is acutely becoming scarce in some parts of Africa and this may adversely hamper our ability to produce livestock locally. Despite these enormous challenges, the demand of livestock products continues to increase by the day and our scarce 114 foreign exchange are being used to import livestock products from outside the continent. Rapid population growth is also not helping matters. As such, in the foreseeable future demand for livestock products would outstrip supply. 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