Jibril Ishaq Jibril

AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Senior Research Thesis ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF AMBIENT AIR IN YOLA, ADAMAWA STATE; IN RELATION TO THE CAUSATIVE FACTORS ACCOUNTING FOR CARBON-BASED POLLUTION. By JIBRIL ISHAQ JIBRIL A- Submitted in partial fulfillment of the ​ requirements for the degree of ​ Bachelor of Science ​ 2020 CERTIFICATION AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF AMBIENT AIR IN YOLA, ADAMAWA STATE; IN RELATION TO THE CAUSATIVE FACTORS ACCOUNTING FOR CARBON-BASED POLLUTION. This thesis represents my original work in accordance with the American University of Nigeria regulations. I am solely responsible for its content. JIBRIL ISHAQ JIBRIL ______________________________ ________________ Signature Date I further authorize the American University of Nigeria to reproduce this thesis by photocopying or by any other means, in total or in part, at the request of other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research. JIBRIL ISHAQ JIBRIL ______________________________ ________________ Signature Date 2 READERS’ APPROVAL ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF AMBIENT AIR IN YOLA, ADAMAWA STATE; IN RELATION TO THE CAUSATIVE FACTORS ACCOUNTING FOR CARBON-BASED POLLUTION JIBRIL ISHAQ JIBRIL A- ​ Approved by ​ Research Supervisor: Jennifer Che, MSc. ​ Instructor of Ecology and Conservation Biology ______________________________ ________________ Signature Date Second Reader: Dr. Malachy Ifeanyi Okeke, PhD ​ Assistant Professor of Natural and Environmental Sciences ______________________________ ________________ Signature Date 3 DEDICATION To my Parents who have sacrificed everything so I can be where I am today and to my siblings for always being a pillar of support. 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My utmost gratitude goes to Almighty Allah for giving me the fortitude and good health to carry out this research seamlessly. My sincere appreciation goes to my supervisors Jennifer Che and Dr. Hayatu Raji for dedicating their time and expertise to enable this research to come to life. 5 ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF AMBIENT AIR IN YOLA, ADAMAWA STATE; IN RELATION TO THE CAUSATIVE FACTORS ACCOUNTING FOR CARBON-BASED POLLUTION JIBRIL ISHAQ JIBRIL​ American University of Nigeria, 2020 Major Professor: Dr. Hayatu Raji, PhD. Program Chair for Natural and Environmental Sciences 6 ABSTRACT Air pollution results in mortality for millions of people annually, especially in developing countries where modes of transportation do not rely on clean energy and there is still extensive use of firewood (biomass) for providing heat. Three billion people use biomass for cooking globally which is a significant number of people being exposed to possible carbon monoxide poisoning making it a major health risk. Firewood-use for cooking indoors presents the biggest risk because it is the leading cause of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in the world. Young men suffer the burden of outdoor exposure the most as they comprise the majority of commercial handlers of tricycles and trucks. Women and children suffer the burden of exposure too due to extended cooking hours in indoor kitchens with firewood. In all 11 wards of Yola/Jimeta, the principal causative factor for the emission of carbon monoxide were assessed. This was done with the aid of a structured questionnaire to interview the managers of fuel stations, firewood sellers and charcoal vendors about the amount of carbon-based fuel they sell per month. To know how much CO is emitted by trucks, cars, tricycles and firewood, a digital carbon monoxide detector was used to collect emissions data for 5 minutes. The results show that diesel engines in trucks emit a higher concentration of CO at concentrations approaching 900 ppm every 5 minutes. Firewood is consumed in large quantities and the average CO reading was 111.9 ppm is not in tandem with the recommendations of the WHO. 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS​ CERTIFICATION​ ii READERS’ APPROVAL​ iii DEDICATION​ iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT​ v ABSTRACT​ vii List of Figures​ ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION​ 1 1.1 The quality of air we breathe​ 1 1.2 The chemistry of environmental pollution with respect to Carbon​ 6 1.3 The physiological effects of different air pollutants​ 11 1.4 Particulate matter​ 12 1.5 Carbon monoxide​ 13 1.6 Sulphur dioxide​ 14 1.7 Nitrogen oxide​ 15 Levels of air pollution in different regions across the world​ 16 1.8 Use of carbon based-fuels in Nigeria​ 20 1.9 HYPOTHESIS​ 21 1.9.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES​ 21 CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND METHODS​ 22 METHODOLOGY​ 22 2.1 Study site​ 22 2.2 Sampling​ 23 2.3 Data collection & analysis​ 23 CHAPTER 3: RESULTS​ 25 CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION​ 28 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION​ 30 REFERENCES​ 31 8 List of Figures Figure 1: Percentage Composition of air​ 13 Figure 2: The Carbon Cycle (Evans & Perlman)​ 20 Figure 3: Total Deaths from Air Pollution by Region, 2013​ 26 Figure 4: Percentage of Total Deaths from Air Pollution by Region, 2013​ 27 Figure 5: Total Deaths from Ambient PM2.5 Pollution by Region, 1990 and 2013​ 28 Figure 6 Population of Yola by Ward (Abdullahi & Abdulrahman, 2015).​ 31 Figure 7. Mean Values of CO emissions from PMS​ 35 Figure 8. Average values of CO emissions from diesel engine trucks​ 35 9 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 The quality of air we breathe​ The quality of air globally is taking a plunge on a daily basis due to indoor and outdoor air pollution. One in every eight people that died in 2012 was as a result of air pollution – meaning that, seven million people lost their lives that year just because the air they were breathing was below the standard of ambient air (WHO, 2014). Updated figures from the World Health Organization suggests that, more than double their previous estimates of deaths resulting from air pollution. In their 2004 estimate, the WHO said that two million people died from air pollution which infers a steady increase compared to the figures a decade later (WHO, 2014). The death toll from air pollution is staggering and worthy of concern since the trends suggest that the fatality rate is increasing annually. Countries and organizations in the world have set up measures to curb air pollution; however, all their efforts do not seem to amount to much since the effects of pollution are still in effect. Air pollution is serious and as such, it should be treated with urgency. A major cause of concern regarding air pollution is the lack of awareness in rural parts of the world. It is one thing to be aware of a problem since it is a step closer to the solution; it is worse to not know what is going on or its effects on the environment and human health. This research was designed to investigate the magnitude of carbon pollution caused by several contributing factors that exist in a city-scale population. However, there are other bodies of literature that must be explored in order to get the bigger picture. Some of the existing literature that will be explored include that of air composition and the atmosphere that houses air, ambient air and existing standards of ambient air, carbon-based fuels and carbon-related pollution, indoor 1 and outdoor air pollution and their effects, and finally, explain how the above concepts fit together to answer the research questions. The atmosphere that houses the air we breathe is a complex system that interacts in many ways to provide humans, animals, and plants with the essential environment to survive. Earth’s atmosphere comprises a gas layer, commonly referred to as air, and is assisted by gravity to surround earth. Earth’s atmosphere also protects life on earth by providing a suitable pressure for liquid water to exist on Earth’s surface. The air-filled atmosphere also absorbs ultraviolet solar radiation, warms the surface of the earth by retention of heat, and balances temperature extremes between night and day through the diurnal temperature variation. Going by the volume, dry air comprises 78.09% nitrogen, oxygen (20.95%), 0.93% and 0.04% of argon and carbon dioxide respectively, and trace amounts of other gases. Water vapor —a greenhouse gas— is also part of Earth’s composition but it exists in variable amounts at sea level (1.0%) and over the rest of the atmosphere (0.4%). Besides these principal gases, the remaining gases in the atmosphere are commonly referred to as trace gases. Trace gases in the atmosphere include greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, and ozone. Other noble gases present in the atmosphere besides argon are neon, krypton, helium, and xenon. At every given point in time filtered air has been observed to include small volumes of several other chemical compounds. Many of these other substances are of natural origins and their volume varies locally and seasonally and includes dust of organic and mineral nature, spores, pollen, volcanic ash, and sea spray. 2 However, the chemical compounds that are not of natural origins that exist in the air we breathe are responsible for tampering with the air quality. In an ideal setting, air should only contain its components in their specified volumes in order to attain the highest air quality standard. By implication, places with a higher degree of foreign compounds or excessive volumes of naturally occurring atmospheric compounds, will be considered to have poor air quality; whereas, the lower the pollutants the higher the air quality standard. Gas Name of gas Volume Chemical formula Concentration in Concentration in ppmv percentage Nitrogen N2 780,840 78.084 Oxygen 02 209,460 20.946 Argon Ar 9,340 0.9340 Carbon dioxide CO2 413.32 - Neon Ne 18.18 - Helium He 5.24 - Methane CH4 1.87 - Krypton Kr 1.14 - Not included in the above table for dry air Water vapor H2O 0-30,000 3 0-3 Notes: i.​ For ideal gases, Volume fraction = mole fraction ii.​ Ppmv: parts per million in volume iii.​ Water vapor varies based on local temperature. Table 1: Principal components of dry air by volume The composition of air, its temperature, and atmospheric pressure is dependent on altitude. Naturally, only earth’s atmosphere contains breathable air for terrestrial animals and air that is suitable for photosynthesis in terrestrial plants. Figure 1: Percentage Composition of air The mass of the atmosphere is roughly 5.15 x 1018 kg. The atmosphere gets increasingly thinner with increasing altitude. There is no definitive boundary existing between the atmosphere and outer space. The Karman line, situated at 100 km of Earth’s radius, is considered the border 4 between the atmosphere and outer space; meaning that beyond that point, the conditions for Earth’s atmosphere cease to exist. Once the composition of air varies from the accepted standard by virtue of pollutants, there is a need to raise a red flag. It is for the above reason that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in America developed the Air Quality Index (AQI). The AQI—through several calculations— returns a figure that approximates the air quality. The index is capable of reporting how clean or polluted the air of a given location is, it also specifies the associated health effects based on the value of the index (AirNow, 2019). The EPA has identified five major air pollutants which they calculate the AQI for. These five major air pollutants are regulated by the clean air act and they include ground level ozone, particulate matter pollution (particle pollution), carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide (AirNow, 2019). The EPA has established a national air quality standard for each of the five pollutants mentioned above in order to protect public health. According to (AirNow, 2019), the AQI is a benchmark running on a scale of 0-500. The level of air pollution and health risks are described according to the range they fall under. This is to say that, an AQI value of 50 is considered to be good air quality with little potential to affect public health; whereas, AQI values of about 300 represents hazardous air quality. Table 2: Numeric and color representation of AQI values and their corresponding descriptions (AirNow, 2019). Air Quality Index Levels of Health Concern Good Moderate Numerical Value- Description Air quality is considered satisfactory, and air pollution poses little or no risk. Air quality is acceptable; however, for some pollutants there may be a moderate health concern for a very small number of people who are unusually sensitive to air pollution. 5 Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups 101 - 150 Unhealthy 151 - 200 Very Unhealthy 201 - 300 Hazardous 301 - 500 Members of sensitive groups may experience health effects. The general public is not likely to be affected. Everyone may begin to experience health effects; members of sensitive groups may experience more serious health effects. Health alert: everyone may experience more serious health effects ​ Health warnings of emergency conditions. The entire population is more likely to be affected. The air we breathe is determined by nature’s delicate balance. Some of the processes that play a crucial role in maintaining this balance include photosynthesis, respiration, combustion and decay (Ababio, 2015). Human activities are known to increase the amount of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere and introduce undesirable substances into the atmosphere to mix with the air we breathe. Natural processes have a limit to how much they remove pollutants from the atmosphere. With a highly industrialized world today, there has been a tremendous increase in the volume of air pollutants in the air. In extreme cases, these pollutants can be present in concentrations that are harmful to humans, animals, plants, and even the non-living environment. The major source of air pollution is the combustion of fossil fuels like coal, petrol, gasoline and gases. Factories, power plants, and vehicles use fossil fuel for their energy demands. In the process of harnessing this energy, many pollutants are released into the air. Other notable culprits of air pollution are freons from aerosol (Ababio, 2015). Among the major pollutants, carbon-based pollutants like oxides of carbon, gaseous hydrocarbons, and chloroflouro-carbons have been prioritized in this research; due to the magnitude of danger they pose to humans across the world and in our immediate communities. 6 1.2 The chemistry of environmental pollution with respect to Carbon ​ To understand the role of carbon in air pollution, we first need to look at the physical and chemical properties of carbon and its compounds. Carbon as a major source of air pollution requires knowledge on how it operates in order to reach a sound judgment; knowing the characteristics of the enemy will provide many options on how to deal with its potential threat. Allotropes of carbon have high melting points (about 3500 ℃) and are insoluble in solvents like water, alkalis, acids, petrol, and carbon (IV) sulphide. Chemically, carbon is not very reactive and most of its compounds are stable. The reason is because the carbon atom has a valency of four and forms compounds with four covalent bonds (Ababio, 2015). Compounds of carbon do not have any lone pair of electrons therefore; it is non-reactive since it cannot donate electrons. Carbon compounds are also very stable because of their strong carbon-carbon bond (Ababio, 2015). Carbon can participate in the formation of single or multiple bonds with itself and other elements like hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur (Ababio, 2015). Due to the carbon-carbon bond, carbon atoms can cluster together to form long chains or rings through a process known as catenation. As a result of this property, carbon can form many compounds that can consist of small molecules or large ones. Carbon is a non-metal commonly found in charcoal, soot, and diamond. Naturally, carbon comes in the form of diamond or graphite. In an impure state, carbon occurs in the form of coal; in a combined state it occurs as petroleum, wood, and natural gases (Ababio, 2015). Carbon compounds are an excellent source of fuels. They are burned to release heat and light which may also be converted into other forms of energy. Alternative sources that contain carbon are the mineral deposits of metallic trioxocarbonates (IV), especially limestone and dolomite, and the 7 carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and water around us (Ababio, 2015). In addition, carbon is present in many other compounds including the carbon compounds that are synthesized, thus increasing the presence of carbon compounds known to us over time. Carbon has the ability to exist in various forms in the same physical state and this property is referred to as allotropy. Crystalline carbon exists in two allotropic forms known as graphite and diamond. Other forms of carbon exist outside the allotropic forms and are called non-crystalline or amorphous forms of carbon. Forms of amorphous carbon include the likes of coal, coke, charcoal, lamp-black, sugar charcoal, and animal charcoal (Ababio, 2015). Diamonds are the purest forms of carbon that occur naturally. They are colorless, lusterless solids that can be transformed into gems. The crystals of diamond are octahedral in shape. Diamonds are large molecules that have tightly packed carbon atoms that are held together by strong covalent bonds (Ababio, 2015). They are the hardest known substances that possess a high melting point. Diamonds are dense and resistant to extreme temperatures. It does not conduct electricity due to the fact that there are no free valence electrons in the diamond crystals since they all participate in the formation of the covalent bond (Ababio, 2015). Graphite—the other allotrope of carbon— occurs naturally as plumbago, an opaque black solid. The carbon atoms present in graphite form flat layers that are arranged in parallel to form a crystal lattice (Ababio, 2015). Unlike diamond, graphite is soft and quick to become flakes due to its layered crystalline structure. It has a high melting point however; it is less dense than diamond. Chemically, graphite is inert but can be oxidized to become a six-carbon atom organic compound under the right conditions. Graphite conducts electricity because it has mobile 8 electrons in the crystal lattice. The mobile electron is possible because only three of the four valence electrons of each carbon atom present in the graphite crystal becomes involved in the formation of bond (Ababio, 2015). For this research, the relevance of the carbon allotropes is to shed light into the structure, physical, and chemical properties of the purest forms of carbon. However, with regard to the public health and the environment, the major threats come from members of the amorphous carbon category because they are susceptible to temperatures that can burn them and liberate carbon dioxide unlike diamond and graphite that are resistant to extreme temperatures. Another significant category of carbon-based compounds are petroleum, wood, and natural gases; mainly because they are burned in large volumes daily due to the increasing demand for energy. Coal as a member of the amorphous carbon family has its origin from the vegetation of the Carboniferous Era; overlying earth deposits protected this vegetation from completely decaying. However, decomposition occurred slowly in the absence of air and by being under pressure. The product of these conditions was carbon (IV) oxide, methane, and water. This process is called carbonization because over time, the vegetable material was converted in stages; from peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and finally anthracite coal which contains about 95% pure carbon with impurities like phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulphur (Ababio, 2015). Coal is used as a fuel for deriving energy in steam engines, factories, and electric power plants. In Nigeria, coal is mined in large amounts in the Milken Hills and Udi of Enugu State (Ababio, 2015). In Onitsha and Asaba, there are reasonable deposits of lignite (Ababio, 2015). 9 Another derivative of carbon, coke, is obtained by heating bituminous coal at very high temperatures (about 1300 ℃) in the absence of air to remove the volatile constituents (Ababio, 2015). This process of obtaining coke is known as the destructive distillation of coal. Coke is also used as a means of producing energy as it burns with little or no smoke even though it emits carbon dioxide upon combustion. Charcoal is derived by heating wood, nut shells, bones, and sugar. The most common is wood charcoal. It is obtained by heating coal through a limited air supply and usually contains sulphur impurities (Ababio, 2015). Charcoal is very porous in nature so it is able to allow small gas molecules to adsorb or adhere to its internal surfaces (Ababio, 2015). Just like coal, wood charcoal is used in Nigeria mostly as a domestic fuel (Ababio, 2015). Carbon forms two harmful oxides, carbon (IV) oxide, and carbon (II) oxide. Earth’s atmosphere contains about 0.03% by volume of carbon (IV) oxide. Carbon dioxide is a colorless and odorless gas that is about 1.5 times denser than air (Ababio, 2015). For carbon (II) oxide, CO, it is produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon compounds like octane, C8H8, found in the rampant petrol. Carbon monoxide occurs in the atmosphere as impurities. The volume present may differ in places based on the carbon combustion activities. Carbon monoxide is highly poisonous since as little as 0.5% of it in the air may be fatal. CO is difficult to detect because it has no color or odor making it even more tedious to deal with. The carbon cycle is best understood by looking at two interconnected sub-cycles. The first of the sub-cycles deals with the rapid exchange of carbon among living organisms; this cycle is referred 10 to as the biological carbon cycle. The other is known as the geological carbon cycle and it deals with the long-term cycling of carbon through geological processes (Riebeek, 2011). In the biological cycle, carbon enters both the terrestrial and aquatic food webs through the action of autotrophs. Almost all autotrophs carry out photosynthesis, like algae and plants. Autotrophs take in carbon dioxide from air or bicarbonate ions from water to produce organic compounds like glucose. In heterotrophs like humans, organic molecules are consumed, and the organic carbon is passed through food chains and webs (Riebeek, 2011). In terms of cycling carbon back into the atmosphere, autotrophs and heterotrophs break down carbon-based molecules for their stored energy in a process known as respiration. The end product of this process yields carbon dioxide. Organic compounds and carbon dioxide are also released by decomposers when they break down dead organisms and waste products (Riebeek, 2011). Through the biological pathway, carbon can cycle fast, especially in aquatic ecosystems. In total, about 1,000-100,000 million metric tons of carbon moves through the biological pathway annually (Riebeek, 2011). In the geological carbon cycle, the cycling of carbon is much slower. It can take up to a million years for carbon to move through the geological pathway. Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are influenced by the carbon reservoir in the ocean. Atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in water to react with water molecules. Carbon is stored in the soil as organic carbon resulting from the decomposition of living things. It can also be stored as inorganic carbon from the weathering of minerals and terrestrial rock. Fossil fuels like oil, coal, and natural gas are 11 formed deeper underground. It takes fossil fuels millions of years to form. When burned, by humans, carbon is liberated into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Figure 2: The Carbon Cycle (Evans & Perlman) 1.3 The physiological effects of different air pollutants ​ Any material found in the atmosphere that is liable to affect human health or have a major impact on the environment can be classified as an air pollutant. With respect to the above, the World Health Organization (WHO) have identified six major air pollutants namely; particulate matter, ground level ozone, carbon monoxide, oxides of Sulphur, nitrogen oxides, and lead. However, these are not the only pollutants capable of causing complications to human health and damage to the environment. Several other pollutants that are suspended in the atmosphere like dust, smokes, fumes, gaseous pollutants, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), hydrocarbons, 12 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and halogen derivatives in the atmosphere can cause susceptibility to many diseases if their concentrations are high (Loomis, Huang, & Chen, 2014). The next few paragraphs describe some of the most dangerous pollutants and their physiological effects on different human body organs and related diseases. 1.4 Particulate matter ​ Particulate matter are major contributors of air pollution. To define simply, particle pollutants are a mixture of particles found in the atmosphere. Particle pollution is commonly referred to as PM and has been linked with the majority of pulmonary and cardiac-associated morbidity and mortality (Sadeghi, Ahmadi, Baradaran, Masoudipoor, & Salim, 2015). Particulate matter varies in sizes ranging from 2.5 to 10 µm (PM2.5 to PM10). Depending on the size, particle pollutants can be directly associated with the commencement and progression of heart and lung diseases (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). Smaller PM particles reach the lower respiratory tract thereby having a greater potential for causing heart and lung diseases (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). Additionally, scientific data have indicated that fine particle pollutants cause premature death in persons with heart or lung diseases that include cardiac dysrhythmias, heart attacks, asthma, and decreased lung functions (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). Depending on the severity of exposure, particle pollutants are likely to cause mild to severe illnesses. The most prevalent clinical symptoms of respiratory diseases resulting from particle pollution include wheezing, cough, dry mouth, and limitations in activity rates due to breathing problems (Benayeb, Simoni, & Norback Dennis, 2013). 13 Extended exposure to the current levels of ambient PM concentrations may result in a considerate deterioration in life expectancy (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). The main reasons for the said reduction in life expectancy are due to cardiopulmonary and lung cancer mortality (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). In children and adults, reduced lung functions leading to asthmatic bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are of serious threat to life because they are likely to lower the quality of life and reduce life expectancy (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). 1.5 Carbon monoxide​ Carbon monoxide (CO) is colorless and odorless, and is produced by burning fossil fuels, especially when combustion is incomplete as is the case with burning fossil fuels like coal and wood. CO has a high affinity for hemoglobin (the oxygen transport mechanism of the body). The affinity of CO to hemoglobin is 250 times greater than that of oxygen (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). Mild to severe CO poisoning may occur depending on the concentration and length of exposure. The symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning will likely include headache, nausea, dizziness, weakness, vomiting, and possibly loss of consciousness (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). The symptoms closely resemble that of other illnesses like food poisoning or viral infections. There are no confirmed health effects for carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) levels lower than 2%, however, levels exceeding 40% may be fatal (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). The known mechanisms of the underlying toxicity of CO include hypoxia, apoptosis, and ischemia (Sumeyya, Serpil, & Nuri, 2014). The way this toxicity works is that it leads to the loss of oxygen because of the competitive binding of CO to the hemoglobin heme groups (Adel, 14 Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). When CO exposures that result in a COHb levels of 5% can trigger cardiovascular changes (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). 1.6 Sulphur dioxide​ SO2 is a highly reactive gas that is colorless and is considered a major air pollutant. Just like CO, sulphur dioxide is mostly emitted from fossil fuel combustion but secondary sources include natural volcanic activities and industrial processes. SO2 is very harmful to plants, animals, and human health. The population that are at risk of skin and lung diseases are children, older people, and people with an existing lung disease (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). According to (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016), the major health concerns linked to the exposure of high sulphur dioxide concentrations are respiratory irritation, respiratory dysfunction, and the exacerbation of prevailing cardiovascular disease. Predominantly, SO2 is absorbed in the upper respiratory airways and can cause bronchospasm and the secretion of mucus in humans because it is a sensory irritant (Benayeb, Simoni, & Norback Dennis, 2013). People who live in industrialized regions exposed to sulphur dioxide even at very low concentrations (<1 ppm) have a likelihood of experiencing high level bronchitis (Sadeghi, Ahmadi, Baradaran, Masoudipoor, & Salim, 2015). Sulphur dioxide can penetrate the lungs more when breathing through the mouth compared to when breathing through the nose (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). Because there is an increase in airflow during deep, rapid breathing, there is enhanced penetration of the gas deeper into the lung. As a result, people that carry out strenuous work in polluted air are likely to inhale more sulphur dioxide that would lead to them being exposed to higher concentrations (Benayeb, 15 Simoni, & Norback Dennis, 2013). Deposits of SO2 in the airways dissolve into the surface lining fluid as sulfite or sulfate which makes it easier to be distributed through the entire body (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). It is likely that the sulfite interacts with sensory receptors in the airways that results in local and centrally mediated bronchoconstriction (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). Additionally, exposure to sulphur dioxide can be responsible for damage to the eyes (corneal opacity and lacrimation), mucus membranes, the skin (redness and blisters), and respiratory tracts (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). Bronchophasm, pneumonitis, pulmonary edema, and acute airway obstruction are some of the most common clinical conclusions related to exposure with SO2 (Tze-Ming, Ware, Janaki, & Scott, 2007). 1.7 Nitrogen oxide​ Oxides of nitrogen are also classified as major ambient air pollutants that may increase the risk of respiratory infections (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). Motor engines are the primary source of nitrogen oxides thereby making them traffic-associated air pollutants (Tze-Ming, Ware, Janaki, & Scott, 2007). In the case where nitrogen oxides are inhaled at high concentrations, they can induce pulmonary edema because they are deep lung irritants (Tze-Ming, Ware, Janaki, & Scott, 2007). T-lymphocytes have been shown to be affected by exposures of about 2.0-5.0 ppm, particularly the CD8+ cells and defense cells that play a crucial role in host defenses against deadly viruses (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). Although, eyes, nose, or throat irritations, headache, dyspnea, chest pain, diaphoresis, fever, bronchospasm, and pulmonary edema may also occur; coughing and wheezing are the most common complications of nitrogen oxides toxicity (Adel, Bamdad, & Mahdi, 2016). In other 16 studies, it is inferred that levels of nitrogen oxides between 0.2 and 0.6 ppm pose no harm to humans (Thomas, et al., 2009). Levels of air pollution in different regions across the world ​ Across the countries of the world, air pollution is a health and environmental problem but with large disparities in severity. In the map above, it shows death rates resulting from air pollution globally, measured in the number of deaths per 100,000 people of a particular country or region. From the map, we observe that death rates tend to be highest across Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. This shows the huge differences globally; rates of death in the countries with the highest burden appear to be more than 100 times greater than it is across most of Europe and North America. 17 Again, the burden of air pollution tends to be more across low- and middle-income countries for two principal reasons; IAP rates tend to be more in low-income countries because of their dependence on solid fuels for cooking and other domestic activities; and OAP tends to increase as countries industrialize. Figure 3: Total Deaths from Air Pollution by Region, 2013 The above char from The World Bank pinpoints the regions of the world that suffer the most mortality resulting from air pollution in 2013. As a result of their high population and high levels of exposure, the most deaths connected to air pollution took place in East Asia and the Pacific (40 percent) and the South Asia regions (33 percent) – see figure 4 (Urvashi, et al., 2016). With regard to the percentage of total deaths, deaths connected to air pollution were also substantial in other regions as well. In East Asia and the Pacific and South Asia, around 14 percent of all deaths were related to air pollution in 2013; in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and North Africa, the figure was seven percent (Urvashi, et al., 2016). 18 From 1990 to 2013, East Asia and the Pacific witnessed a slight reduction in the share of air pollution related mortality, from 14.9 percent to around 14.4 percent, while South Asia saw a momentous increase, from 10.5 percent to 13.7 percent (Urvashi, et al., 2016). Furthermore, in 2013, South Asia had the highest number of deaths per 100,000 people from air pollution (106 per 100,000 persons), closely followed by East Asia and the Pacific (99 per 100,000) and Sub-Saharan Africa (64 per 100,000) (Urvashi, et al., 2016). Latin America and the Caribbean along with North America witnessed the lowest deaths per 100,000 people as a result of air pollution in 2013: 28 and 29 per 100,000, respectively (Urvashi, et al., 2016). The number of deaths per 100,000 people due to air pollution in East Asia and the Pacific with South Asia have declined by just a little since 1990, however the mortality rate from air pollution in these regions has climbed substantially (Urvashi, et al., 2016). Figure 4: Percentage of Total Deaths from Air Pollution by Region, 2013 19 Figure 5: Total Deaths from Ambient PM2.5 Pollution by Region, 1990 and 2013 Ambient PM2.5 (APM) pollution caused more than 2.9 million deaths in 2013 (an increase of 30 percent from 1990) (Urvashi, et al., 2016). From the 2.9 million deaths, 1.7 million were males and 1.2 million were females (Urvashi, et al., 2016). The rising trend in the mortality rate climbed after 2000, influenced largely by China (Urvashi, et al., 2016). In 1990, the deaths associated with APM numbered 2.2 million, the death toll then climbed to 2.4 million in 2000, an 8 percent increase; this followed by a 21 percent increase to 2.9 million deaths in 2013 (Urvashi, et al., 2016). A number of factors had a hand in the increase in the number of APM deaths, including the increase in PM2.5 exposure in countries with massive populations (China, India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan), population growth, aging population, and changes in the occurrence of diseases that worsen due to air pollution (Urvashi, et al., 2016). Even though most of the deaths took place in East Asia and the Pacific including South Asia, all other regions except Europe, Central Asia, and North America experienced an increase in mortality rate (Urvashi, et al., 2016). 20 1.8 Use of carbon based-fuels in Nigeria​ Nigeria being the most populous country in Africa has a large number of people who live in rural settlements (NPC & ICF, 2014). As reported by the Nigerian Population Commission, in 2013, 37.9% of the urban population and 83.3% of the rural population in Nigeria rely on carbon-based fuels for cooking and other domestic activities (NPC & ICF, 2014). Less than 5% of the Nigerian population are able to access clean household fuel like liquefied natural gas and electrical heaters that do not emit pollutants (Organization, 2016). Majority of the rural population that rely on carbon-based fuels have little or no knowledge of the health implications of burning carbon-based fuels (biomass). Furthermore, judging by the inadequacy of government-provided means of transportation, there is a high demand for personal means of transportation where people rely on motorcycles, tricycles, and cars. This problem has resulted in an enormous number of motor-vehicles in the country; and because all these means of transportation rely on carbon-based petroleum fuels, there is likely an enormous number of pollutants being emitted into the atmosphere. Also, the electricity challenge in the country has resulted in the high demand for electric generators that also rely on burning carbon-based fuels through combustion that also leads to a steady release of pollutants into the atmosphere. This is where this research project comes into the picture; it will test for the quality of ambient air in Yola/Jimeta areas by quantifying the rate of pollution by different carbon-based fuels. This will allow the study to localize the principal causative factor for the poor quality of air. The 21 research will also identify the population with the highest risk factors as well as the laws that are in place to plug the problem if there are any at all. 1.9 HYPOTHESIS​ This research was designed to investigate the principal sources of carbon-based pollution in Yola, Adamawa state. The study intends to answer the question of which carbon pollution source accounts for the bulk of carbon-related pollution as well as the magnitude of pollution caused by these causative factors. To what extent do the various carbon-related pollutants contribute to the reduction in quality of the ambient air in Yola? Are carbon-related pollutants depositing harmful volumes of carbon and other pollutants that alter the quality of ambient air in Yola? Null Hypothesis Carbon-based fuels do not account for most of the carbon monoxide deposition in the atmosphere of Yola/Jimeta in Adamawa state, northeastern Nigeria. Research Hypothesis Carbon-based fuels are responsible for most of the carbon monoxide present in the atmosphere of Yola/Jimeta in Adamawa state. 1.9.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES​ ●​ ●​ ●​ ●​ ●​ To determine the quality of ambient air in Yola. To test which carbon fuel emits the most pollutants per minute of combustion. Identifying the predominant contributors to carbon-based pollution. To find out the population categories that are exposed to most of the carbon pollutants. To review the laws and regulations in place that foster or control carbon pollution. 22 CHAPTER 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS METHODOLOGY 2.1 Study site​ This study was conducted in the Yola/Jimeta axis of Adamawa state, Northeastern Nigeria. Yola is the biggest city in Adamawa as well as the administrative center of the state. Located along the River Benue, Yola is split into two; the ancient town of Yola (traditional capital) where the traditional ruler (Lamido) resides and Jimeta which is the administrative and commercial center. Yola has a total area of 831 km2 with an elevation of almost 2000 ft. According to the Nigerian population census of 2006, the population of Yola was 198,314 but was projected to reach 247, 892 in 2015and 392,854 in 2020. The population density is 470/km2. Figure 6 Population of Yola by Ward (Abdullahi & Abdulrahman, 2015). 23 2.2 Sampling ​ The sampling units were the various sources of carbon-based fuel distribution: gas stations, firewood and charcoal depots. A convenience sampling method was used to interview managers of carbon-based fuel sources who were available and willing to partake in the interview to determine the total monthly or daily consumption of carbon-based fuels. The carbon-based fuel managers I interviewed worked in one of the 11 wards in the Yola/Jimeta community. I interviewed three managers in each ward; one gas station manager, one charcoal retailer, and a firewood merchant. Therefore, the total size of my sample was 33 suppliers of carbon-based fuels. Furthermore, the research chose a sub-sample size of seven cars, three trucks, 15 tri-cycle, 2 PMS generators, two diesel generators and 10 household kitchens. 2.3 Data collection & analysis​ The choice of specific locations within 11 wards where CO emissions data were recorded were based on the following; security, accessibility, central location, and population density. Data for this research was collected by structured questionnaires first then followed by interviews that will help compensate for any other information that might be relevant but was not included in the questionnaire. The questionnaire asked questions about the volume of carbon-based fuels they sell monthly, the demographic of the population that frequent their establishment. For gas stations, consumers were classified into four; cars, motorcycles, diesel engine trucks, and tricycles. Motorcycles are banned in Yola but there are outskirt communities that still make use of them like the Sangere community on the other side of the River Benue Bridge. This is because the combustion engines of these three automobiles are built differently therefore, their CO emissions rate will differ. I also considered the amount of time these automobiles spend on the 24 road and the amount of fuel needed to do. The age or working condition of the vehicles was also factored in the data collection because the condition of these combustion engines determines the frequency at which there will be incomplete combustion that will liberate CO. To measure the volume of CO by source, I used a carbon monoxide monitor for precise values. To understand the quantity of CO emitted, it is important that we know the amount of CO in ppm emitted by the various consumers of carbon-based fuels; cars, tricycles, motorcycles, cooking stations and electricity generators. For the automobiles, I allowed the CO monitor dangle next to the exhaust pipes just before the automobile starts and is removed after five minutes. 25 CHAPTER 3: RESULTS Carbon-based fuel consumption Among all the fuel stations that responded to the questionnaire, 100% (n = 11) of the respondents answered in favor of tri-cycles (Keke) – out of three other options (cars, trucks, and motorcycles) -- when asked “What vehicle types visit your station the most?” Therefore, more tricycles visit stations and buy an average PMS of four liters. More tricycles visit fuel stations in Yola/Jimeta than cars and motorcycles. However, when asked about the volume of fuel consumed by the various automobiles in the questionnaire, cars had the highest volume with an average of 11 liters per engine; almost three times the average volume consumed by tricycles and five times the volume for motorcycles that had an average consumption of two liters per day. For trucks, a single engine consumes an average of 70 liters of diesel per day. The most important result here however is the average of the sum total of fuel consumed monthly by all 11 respondents. The time duration for the consumption of one standard fuel tanker (33,000 liters) is 23 days (average for all 11 samples). Therefore, for all the samples, the total average consumption every 23 days is 363,000 liters. The CO emitted from the exhaust pipes of engines running on PMS or diesel ranges from 15 – 100,000 ppm (Harvey, 1998). Averagely, firewood vendors in all 11 wards sold 13,278 kg daily implying that in a month, 398,340 kg of cooking firewood. 26 Figure 7. Mean Values of CO emissions from PMS Figure 8. Average values of CO emissions from diesel engine trucks The acceptable level of CO exposure set by the WHO for exposure time of 15 minutes, one hour, 8 hours, and 24 hours are 81.1 ppm, 28.4 ppm, 8.11 ppm, and 5.68 ppm respectively (WHO, 2000) (Mukhtar, 2017). The figure obtained in the cohort research suggests exposure levels well beyond the WHO recommendation. 27 CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION​ The results of the study suggest that tricycles are the principal consumers of the total monthly average PMS. This is mainly because the sole purpose of these automobiles is for commercial uses. The average tricycle operator is on the road for 9 hours meaning the frequency of refueling is higher than those that operate their vehicles for personal reasons. Only firewood has a higher refuel frequency. Furthermore, the number of tricycles on the road at all times is more than that of cars and trucks combined based on the data from (Modibbo & Fashola, 2017) stating that the number of registered tricycles in Adamawa increased from 218,802 in 2006 to 288,474 in 2007. When all these factors come together, it results in the use of large volumes of PMS daily. Cars on the other hand, do not refuel as much as tricycles for a number of reasons; bigger tank, more volume purchased per gas station visit, shorter engine runtime since most cars in Yola/Jimeta are not for commercial use due to the tri-cycle alternative. Gasoline generators do not consume as much PMS as cars, tri-cycles, and trucks do daily because their use is not as rampant given that the Yola Electricity Distribution Company (YEDC) supplies sufficient electricity that reduces the running time of gasoline electricity generating sets. PMS based engines consume an average of 363,000 liters every 23 days. The result shows that the CO emissions from the use of PMS reached a maximum of about 300 ppm within a duration of five minutes which is above the exposure standard set by the World Health Organization. In the case of trucks, their carbon-based fuel consumption is high as well as the CO emissions. The maximum emission recorded from diesel emission from trucks was almost 900 ppm, twice as much as PMS emissions. This can be attributed to the fact that trucks in most parts of Nigeria 28 if not all have their engines in such a bad condition that they have a higher rate of incomplete carbon combustion. Furthermore, there is little or no use of catalytic converters that will reduce the CO emissions. It was also observed that young men between the ages of 20-35 are the handlers of these trucks mainly because driving trucks demands tremendous strength. This leaves the most susceptible group (the elderly), children and women out of the exposure risk but any of the young men with pre-existing conditions will suffer the risks associated with CO exposure. A cohort study discovered that the average and maximum CO emitted from burning firewood is lower than that of PMS and diesel with a value of 111.86 and 692 ppm respectively. The reliance on wood and charcoal for cooking is a testament to the poverty and lack of electricity in some wards. This inability to afford gas cookers or electric cookers has indirectly put those who burn firewood at a higher risk of being poisoned by Carbon monoxide. Given that poor people use firewood the most and that Nigeria has about 83 million poor people does not bode well (The World Bank, 2020). By implication, the high use of firewood means another problem besides CO is created somewhere else and that problem is deforestation. What this means is that there are emissions from burning wood and there are increasingly fewer trees to clean the air making it a vicious cycle of CO exposure. Women and female children were found to stand the most risk from cooking with firewood as has also been confirmed by other studies like that of India where 55.5% of children under age five frequently remain with their mothers when they burn firewood to cook (Deep, Naba, & Datta, 2014). The same study also noted that women predominantly show symptoms such as eye irritation, shortness of breath, and dizziness. Women in Malawi who sit by the fire to tend to it as cooking goes on were observed to have been exposed to CO concentrations above 300 ppm (Duncan, Nigel, & Stephen, 2008); 10% of children under the age 29 of 5 living in houses that burn firewood had acute respiratory infection in Ilham district, Eastern Nepal (NHRC, 2015). 30 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION The volume of CO exposed to the residents of Yola/Jimeta is enough to raise an alarm. PMS is consumed in large volumes by cars, tricycles, and gasoline electricity generators; however, among the three major sources of carbon-based fuels studied in this sample, the exposure risk to PMS is lower than that of diesel and firewood (biomass). Diesel engines in trucks emit the most volume of carbon monoxide in parts per million than PMS and biomass. Firewood is very dangerous because of the frequency and duration of exposure. Women and growing children bear much of the burden of risk from exposure to CO. Poverty is the underlying factor behind the large consumption of biomass for cooking. The socioeconomic condition of the country is placing about 83 million poor people at the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning. There is a need to improve the distribution and duration of electricity provision in rural areas to enable the use of pressure cookers or any other appliance that converts electricity into heat. Young men too are in the firing line of CO exposure because they make up the majority of tricycle operators and truck drivers. Unemployment is the major driver responsible for making youths explore other job options that put them in a high-risk category. 31 REFERENCES​ Ababio, O. Y. (2015). New School Chemistry (6th ed.). Onitsha: Africana First Publishers PLC. Retrieved October 20, 2019 Abdullahi, M., & Abdulrahman, S. 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