Iddrisu Abdulai

SIMON DIEDONG DOMBO UNIVERSITY OF BUSINESS AND INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (SDD-UBIDS). FACULTY OF INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT STUDIES(FIDS). The Impact of Road Infrastructure on Market Access for Farmers in Tamalgu, Karaga District, Northern Ghana. By Iddrisu Abdulai UG- ABSTRACT Efficient road infrastructure is a critical driver of rural development, particularly in enhancing farmers’ access to markets. In many rural communities of Northern Ghana, poor road conditions limit agricultural productivity, reduce farmers’ income, and hinder socio-economic growth. This study seeks to examine the impact of road infrastructure on market access for farmers in Tamalgu, Karaga District. Specifically, it will assess how the quality, availability, and connectivity of roads influence farmers’ ability to transport goods, access buyers, and secure fair prices for their produce. Using a mixed-methods approach, the research will collect quantitative data from farmers through structured questionnaires, complemented by qualitative insights from key informant interviews with community leaders, transport operators, and agricultural officers. Data will be analysed using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis to identify both measurable and perceived effects of road infrastructure on market participation. The findings are expected to provide evidence-based recommendations for policymakers, development agencies, and local authorities to prioritize road improvements as a strategy for boosting rural livelihoods and market integration in the Karaga District. Contents ABSTRACTii TABLE OF CONTENTiii LIST OF ACRONYMS\ABREVIATIONS…………………………………………………………………………………...iv General Introduction1 1.1 Background of the Study1 1.2 Problem Statement2 1.3 Research Questions3 1.3.2 Specific Research Questions3 1.4 Research Objectives4 1.4.1 Main Research Objective4 1.4.2 Specific Research Objectives4 1.5 Significance of the Study4 1.6 Scope of the Study5 1.7 Organization of the study.5 1.8 Literature Review5 Theoretical framework6 Empirical evidence6 1.9 Research Methodology7 1.9.1 Study Area7 1.9.2 Study Design8 1.9.3 Sampling Techniques and Sample size.8 1.9.4 Data Collection Tools9 1.9.5 Data Analysis10 1.10 Possible limitations of the study.11 References13 LIST OF ABREVIATIONS 1. Ghana Statistical Survey------------------------------------------------------GSS. 2. World Health Organization---------------------------------------------------WHO. 3. New Economic Geography--------------------------------------------------NEG . 4. Transaction Cost Economics------------------------------------------------- -TCE. 5. Focus Group Discussion------------------------------------------------------FDGs. 6. Non-Governmental Organizations-----------------------------------------NGOs. 7. Ordinary Least Squares---------------------------------------------------------OLS. 8. Global Positioning System----------------------------------------------------GPS. 9. Gross Domestic Product-------------------------------------------------------GDP. General Introduction 1.1 Background of the Study Agriculture remains a vital component of Ghana’s economy, especially in its rural regions. In Ghana, agriculture constitutes a fundamental part of the rural economy, especially in the northern regions where the majority of the population depends on farming for their livelihood (Ghana Statistical Service, GSS, 2021). This is evident in the Ghana Statistical Service report in 2021 which states that the agricultural sector is the cornerstone of Ghana's economy, employing over 45% of the population and contributing significantly to the nation's GDP (Ghana Statistical Service, 2021). In 2023, approximately 35 percent of Ghana’s labour force was employed in agriculture, according to World Bank compiled data, highlighting its significant role in livelihoods and employment throughout the country (Ghana Fact, 2025; World Bank, as cited in Ghana Fact, 2025). However, the productivity and profitability of smallholder farmers are heavily influenced by their ability to access markets efficiently. Road infrastructure is widely recognized as a critical enabler of market participation, income enhancement, and rural development (Barrett, 2008; Dzanku, Jirata, & Ayele, 2021). Poor road infrastructure, creates spatial inequalities in access to opportunities, trapping rural farmers in poverty cycles. About 65% of Ghana's rural roads are unpaved, and many of them become impassable during the rainy season (Oxford Business Group, 2022). This results in high transportation costs, delays in the movement of perishable goods, and reliance on exploitative middlemen who offer lower farmgate prices for farmers in communities like Tamalgu in the Karaga District. The transformative influence of road infrastructure on rural market participation is well-documented. For example, improved rural connectivity through feeder roads has been found to enhance performance of local businesses: the Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) reported that their development of 357 km of feeder roads (worth US $71 million) led to a 44 percent increase in asset holdings of businesses along those routes between 2014 and 2017 compared to control areas (Oxford Business Group, 2022). Further illustrating the broader economic impact, the Copenhagen Consensus Centre found that 65 percent of rural-urban roads were in sub-optimal condition, with 76 percent of Ghana’s total road network unpaved, underscoring the infrastructural deficits hindering inclusive growth (Oxford Business Group, 2022). Yet, despite extensive literature highlighting this link, market access remains a persistent challenge for rural farmers, particularly in underdeveloped districts such as Karaga in Northern Ghana. These poor conditions restrict rural producers' access to markets and services, limiting their economic potential. Tamalgu in Karaga District and other northern Ghanaian regions face particular geographical and socioeconomic difficulties. Feeder roads frequently become impassable due to erosion and flooding during the single rainy season, stretching from May to October. Transporting farm produce to markets in Karaga, Savelugu, or Tamale is a major challenge for Tamalgu farmers who grow staple crops like maize, yam, millet, and sorghum. They are consequently compelled to sell to itinerant traders at the farm gate for reduced prices, which drastically reduces their incomes. These difficulties erode rural households’ ability to withstand shocks, such as climate change, discourage investments in improved farming technologies, and prolong the cycle of poverty. In this sense, inadequate road infrastructure not only restricts access to markets but also exacerbates socioeconomic inequalities Previous studies (e.g., Amanor, 2019; Asante, Boakye, & Egyir, 2020) suggest that poor road networks contribute to high transport costs, post-harvest losses, and limited access to urban markets. These challenges reduce the competitiveness of smallholder farmers, trapping them in subsistence cycles. For instance, while Barrett (2008) argues that road improvements can increase farmers’ participation in markets, Amanor (2019) counters that structural issues such as limited rural investment and logistical barriers often undermine these potential gains. Thus, improving road infrastructure alone may not guarantee improved market access unless local conditions are taken into account. In the context of Ghana’s rural development strategy, initiatives such as the Feeder Roads Programme aim to improve physical access and rural mobility. Yet, empirical assessments of the actual impact of such interventions on farmers’ livelihoods are often generalized at the national or regional level, with little attention paid to micro-level variations (World Bank, 2020). With these national and regional findings, micro-level studies remain scarce. The Feeder Roads Activity and related national initiatives such as the World Bank’s Transport Sector Improvement Project (TSIP) and EU-supported road rehabilitation focus on aggregate outcomes, often neglecting localized, community-level impacts (Oxford Business Group, 2022; Lamptey, 2024). Consequently, there remains a substantial evidence gap in understanding how poor road conditions affect smallholder farmers’ market access, post-harvest losses, and income at a micro-community level particularly in marginalized places like Tamalgu in the Karaga District. Communities like “Tamalgu”, located in the “Karaga District”, are representative of rural areas where farmers face daily difficulties in accessing markets due to poor road conditions. While national figures indicate progress, the lived realities in such communities remain largely undocumented. This study therefore seeks to address this gap by exploring how road infrastructure affects market access for farmers in Tamalgu. The aim is to generate context-specific evidence to inform targeted infrastructural investments that can drive inclusive rural development. 1.2 Problem Statement Although the role of road infrastructure in enhancing market access and improving agricultural outcomes is widely acknowledged (Dercon et al., 2009; Dorosh et al., 2012), significant disparities remain in how these benefits are experienced across Ghana’s rural communities Porter, G. (2014). In particular, farmers in Tamalgu, a farming community in the Karaga District of Northern Ghana, continue to grapple with inadequate and poorly maintained road networks. This impedes their ability to transport produce to markets, increases post-harvest losses, and reduces household income. While national programmes like feeder road improvements exist, their outcomes are not uniformly experienced and are often assessed at broad regional scales, omitting nuanced local realities (Oxford Business Group, 2022). The problem is further compounded by the perishable agricultural products. Fast access to markets is necessary for crops like tomatoes, peppers, and yams, but inadequate road infrastructure causes spoiling and waste, deterring farmers from producing on a large scale. Due to middlemen taking advantage of farmers' desperate attempts to sell before their produce spoils, poor infrastructure also reduces farmers' bargaining power. In effect, the cycle of poor road conditions and limited market access locks farmers into subsistence production and chronic poverty. This problem perpetuates rural underdevelopment, migration of youth to urban areas, and social inequalities between northern and southern Ghana. While existing studies (Barrett, 2008; Dzanku et al., 2021) have established a general link between infrastructure and market participation, several studies have also examined how this relationship manifests itself in particular rural contexts that are marked by institutional support being weak and geographic marginalisation (Asante et al., 2020). More localised and community specific evaluations are still required, though, especially in places like Tamalgu where local realities might diverge from more general regional conclusions. For instance, whereas Dzanku et al. (2021) found that road improvements significantly increased market access in some areas of Ghana and Ethiopia, Amanor (2019) emphasized that the absence of complementary services such as storage and credit access limit these gains. This tension suggests that infrastructure alone is not a silver bullet but must be understood within specific local settings. Thus, the absence of localized, evidence-based assessments on how road infrastructure affects market access in communities like Tamalgu constitutes a critical knowledge gap. Addressing this will not only contribute to academic discourse but also inform policy interventions tailored to the lived realities of smallholder farmers in northern Ghana. 1.3 Research Questions 1.3.1 Main Research Question How does road infrastructure affect market access for farmers in Tamalgu, Karaga District, Northern Ghana? 1.3.2 Specific Research Questions 1. What is the current condition of road infrastructure in the Tamalgu area and how does it influence transportaion for farmers? 2. In what ways does road infrastructure affect farmers’ ability to access markets? 3. What measures can be implemented to improve road infrastructure and enhance market access for farmers? 1.4 Research Objectives 1.4.1 Main Research Objective To examine the impact of road infrastructure on market access for farmers in Tamalgu, Karaga District, Northern Ghana. 1.4.2 Specific Research Objectives 1. To assess the current state of road infrastructure in Tamalgu area, and how it influences farmer’s transportation. 2. To determine the relationship between road infrastructure and farmers’ access to markets. 3. To recommend strategies for improving road infrastructure to enhance farmers’ market access. 1.5 Significance of the Study This study is significant for several reasons. First, it will provide empirical evidence on how road infrastructure affects market access for rural farmers, an issue that directly impacts agricultural productivity, income generation, and rural livelihoods. For policymakers and development planners, the findings will serve as a valuable resource in prioritizing infrastructure investments and designing rural development strategies that promote equitable economic growth. For local government authorities in the Karaga District, the study will highlight specific infrastructural gaps and guide resource allocation to improve farmers’ connectivity to markets. Additionally, development partners and NGOs can use the insights to design interventions that enhance agricultural value chains and reduce post-harvest losses. Finally, the study will contribute to academic literature on rural infrastructure and market access, offering a reference point for future research in Ghana and similar contexts in sub-Saharan Africa. 1.6 Scope of the Study Geographically, the study will be confined to the Tamalgu area in the Karaga District, Northern Ghana. Thematically, the research will focus on the relationship between road infrastructure and market access for smallholder farmers, including transport costs, travel time, frequency of market visits, and challenges in marketing agricultural produce. Methodologically, the study will integrate both quantitative and qualitative data to provide a holistic view of the research problem. The scope does not extend to other infrastructural factors such as electricity or telecommunications, unless they directly relate to road use and market access. 1.7 Organization of the study. The research study that would be conducted will be in chapters. That is, five (5) chapters. The first chapter (Chapter One), would be on the general introduction of the study, consisting of the background of the study, problem statement, the significance of the study, research questions and objectives, and the scope of the study. “Chapter Two” contains the literature review, which identifies the knowledge gab as well as the conceptual or theoretical framework adopted from the review. The third chapter (Chapter Three) would consist of the study area and methodologies to be used in the study, such as data collection tools, analysis tools, and, also ethical principles. This would be followed by the presentation of results or findings after analysis has been done with the data collected, which would be “Chapter Four”. With the last chapter (Chapter Five), would be made up of conclusion and recommendation(s). 1.8 Literature Review The Literature Review would comprise of three main sections. That is, the Theoretical Framework, the Conceptual Framework, and the Empirical Evidence. The Theoretical Framework would comprise of theories underpinning the research study, while the Conceptual Framework would try and portray the mental image of I the researcher in a diagram form. In other words, this aspect is where all the variables of the study are shown in a diagram form to reveal the researcher’s ideology of the subject matter. Lastly, the Empirical Evidence will consist of a review of other’s work which relates with the research topic. This would help confirm the reason of the gap the researcher has identified. Empirical evidence At this section, I will review other’s work relevant to my research study. This would be in the form of the following: 1. Jacoby (2000) Bangladesh (classic econometric evidence) Jacoby uses household and transport data to show that rural road investments lower travel times and transport costs and significantly increase the value of marketed output and household welfare. The paper is commonly cited as clear causal evidence that road access improves farmers’ market opportunities and incomes. (Economic Journal). ([World Bank][5]) 2. Acheampong (2016) Ghana (multi-district MPhil thesis) Using household surveys and spatial analysis across Ghanaian districts, Acheampong finds that improved roads are strongly associated with higher market participation: farmers with all-season road access sold a far larger share of output (mean of 84%) versus hinterland farmers (31%). The thesis also links road quality to farm commercialisation (and to broader land-use change). This provides Ghana-specific evidence that road quality matters for commercialization. ([JCU Research Online][6]). 3. Owusu (Kasena-Nankana West District) case study, Ghana (2019) A regional study from northern Ghana documents how poor roads especially during rains raise transport fares, increase post-harvest loss, encourage farm-gate sales at lower prices, and reduce livelihood resilience. The paper’s policy recommendations stress feeder-road rehabilitation and local storage as complements to road upgrades. This affirms localized, seasonal constraints on market access in northern Ghana. ([ResearchGate][7]) Research gap (for Tamalgu, Karaga District) Existing empirical work establishes that roads matter for market access broadly and in several Ghanaian districts, but there is a lack of micro-level, place-specific studies for Tamalgu (Karaga District) that: (a) measure seasonal variation (wet vs dry season) in road passability and market access; (b) use quasi-experimental or mixed quantitative designs to estimate causal effects on farmers’ prices received, volumes sold, and income; and (c) explore distributional effects by gender, crop type and farm size. In short, Tamalgu lacks targeted empirical evidence that quantifies how feeder-road condition affects local farmers’ commercialization, prices and livelihoods; a gap my study can fill. ([JCU Research Online][6], [ResearchGate][7], [FAS][8]) Theoretical framework For the theoretical the following are some forms of theories that I will look at, which underpins my study. 1. New Economic Geography (NEG) Paul Krugman, awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2008, developed the New Economic Geography framework to explain how transport costs, economies of scale, and market size influence the spatial distribution of economic activities. The theory posits that improved infrastructure, such as roads, reduces transport costs, encourages market integration, and can lead to agglomeration of economic activities. This has direct implications for rural farmers, as better roads can facilitate access to larger and more profitable markets (Krugman, 2008) 2. Transaction Cost Economics (TCE) Again, I will look at the Transaction Cost Economics (TCE) by Ronald Coase (1937) and Oliver E. Williamson (1979, 1981). Transaction Cost Economics was introduced by Ronald Coase in “The Nature of the Firm” (1937) and later expanded by Oliver E. Williamson. It examines how transaction costs searching, negotiating, and enforcing agreements affect economic exchanges. In the agricultural context, poor road infrastructure increases transport costs, reduces bargaining power, and limits farmers’ ability to reach competitive markets. Improved roads reduce these costs, enabling farmers to participate more effectively in wider markets. 1.9 Research Methodology 1.9.1 Study Area The study will be conducted in Tamalgu, a rural community located in the Karaga District of the Northern Region of Ghana. Karaga District lies within the Guinea Savannah ecological zone and is characterized by a single rainy season, which typically spans from May to October, followed by a long dry season. The district shares boundaries with West Mamprusi Municipal to the west, Gushegu Municipal to the east, and Savelugu Municipal to the south. Tamalgu is predominantly an agrarian community, with smallholder farming being the main economic activity. Farmers cultivate staple crops such as maize, millet, yam, sorghum, and groundnut, often using traditional methods and relying heavily on seasonal rainfall. Livestock rearing is also common, serving as both a source of food and supplementary income. The road network in and around Tamalgu consists mainly of feeder and unpaved roads, many of which become difficult to traverse during the rainy season due to flooding and poor drainage. This limits farmers’ access to nearby market centers such as Karaga township, Savelugu, and Tamale, where they can obtain better prices for their produce. Inadequate road infrastructure often forces farmers to sell at the farm gate to itinerant traders at lower prices, reducing their income potential. Social amenities such as schools, health facilities, and market infrastructure are limited, and access to urban services requires travel over considerable distances. The population is predominantly Dagomba, with agriculture forming the cultural and economic backbone of community life. The seasonal and infrastructural constraints in Tamalgu make it an appropriate setting to investigate how road infrastructure affects market access and, by extension, farmers’ livelihoods. 1.9.2 Study Design This study will adopt a mixed methods research design, combining both quantitative and qualitative approaches to provide a comprehensive understanding of the impact of road infrastructure on market access for farmers in Tamalgu, Karaga District. The quantitative component will measure variables such as transportation costs, travel time, and frequency of market visits, while the qualitative component will explore farmers’ lived experiences, perceptions, and challenges regarding road infrastructure. The mixed methods design allows for triangulation of data, enhancing the validity and depth of findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). 1.9.3 Sampling Techniques and Sample size. The study would employ a combination of probability and non-probability sampling techniques to ensure a balanced representation and richness of data, in line with the mixed-methods approach and a sample size of 120 farming households. 1. Simple Random Sampling For the quantitative component of the study, simple random sampling would be employed to select farming households in the Tamalgu community. This method was chosen because it minimizes the risk of selection bias and increases the representativeness of the sample. First, a comprehensive list of all farming households would be compiled in collaboration with local community authorities and agricultural officers. Each household would be assigned a unique identification number. A computer-generated random number sequence would then be used to select respondents, ensuring that every household had an equal probability of inclusion in the study. This approach is particularly useful in agricultural and infrastructure studies because it provides unbiased statistical estimates of the population parameters (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). 2. Purposive Sampling For the qualitative component, purposive sampling would be employed to identify key informants who possess specialized knowledge and lived experiences relevant to the topic. These included community leaders, agricultural extension officers, experienced farmers, and individuals with first-hand insights into the road infrastructure and its consequences on market access by farmers in Tamalgu of the Karaga District. Purposive sampling is a strategic, non-probability approach that enables researchers to select participants who can provide in-depth, information-rich accounts (Palinkas et al., 2015). This technique will be crucial for understanding the nuanced socio-economic implications of infrastructure on farming activities and for uncovering perspectives that may not emerge from purely quantitative surveys. 1.9.4 Data Collection Tools Multiple tools would be employed to capture both quantitative and qualitative data: 1. Structured Questionnaires Structured questionnaires would be used primarily for the quantitative data collection. These questionnaires would include a fixed set of closed-ended questions designed to capture data on variables such as transportation costs, travel time, produce prices, labour availability, frequency of market visits, and the socio-economic background of respondents. The structured format facilitated consistency across all respondents and allowed for straightforward coding and statistical analysis (Kumar, 2019). This tool was particularly effective in generating measurable and comparable data that could be used to identify trends and patterns in the relationship between infrastructure and agricultural activities. 2. Semi-Structured Interviews For the qualitative data collection, semi-structured interviews would be conducted with the purposively selected key informants. These interviews would combine a set of guiding questions with the flexibility to follow up on emerging topics during the discussion. This approach would provide room for respondents to elaborate on issues such as the socio-cultural drivers of road infrastructure, the impact it has on farming productivity, and coping strategies adopted by the community. The semi-structured format is highly suitable for exploratory aspects of research, as it balances the need for focused inquiry with the flexibility to capture unexpected but relevant insights (Bryman, 2016). 3. Direct Observation Observations were conducted along key road networks to assess their condition and identify physical barriers to transportation. This provided contextual understanding that complemented other data sources (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). 4.Key Informant Interviews. These will be conducted with approximately 10 purposively selected individuals, including community leaders, agricultural extension officers, transport operators, and experienced farmers. KIIs will provide in-depth insights into infrastructural challenges, seasonal road accessibility, and the socio-economic implications of road condition. Key Informant Interviews provide expert opinions and contextual insights that may not be captured in surveys (Kumar, 2019). 5.Focus Group Discussions. Two focus group sessions will be organized, each with 6–8 participants from different demographic groups (e.g., male farmers, female farmers, and youth farmers). FGDs will allow participants to collectively discuss road infrastructure issues, share experiences, and propose solutions, enabling the researcher to capture group dynamics and shared perspectives. FGDs encourage interaction among participants and bring out collective views and experiences regarding road infrastructure (Krueger & Casey, 2015). 1.9.5 Data Analysis The analysis of data for this study will adopt both quantitative and qualitative approaches in order to provide a comprehensive understanding of how road infrastructure impacts market access for farmers in Tamalgu. Quantitative data will be obtained through structured questionnaires administered to farming households, capturing information on transport costs, travel time, farmgate prices, market participation frequency, and road conditions. Qualitative data will be gathered from key informant interviews with community leaders, market operators, and transport providers to gain deeper insights into the challenges and opportunities related to road infrastructure. The analysis will begin with descriptive statistics to summarize key variables. Measures such as means, medians, standard deviations, and frequency distributions will be used to present patterns in transport costs, travel times, and the proportion of agricultural produce marketed. Cross-tabulations will be applied to explore differences in market participation between farmers with good road access and those with poor access. Graphical presentations, including bar charts and maps, will also be employed to visualize disparities in road quality and market reach. To test the relationship between road infrastructure and market access, inferential statistical methods will be employed. Regression analysis will be used to examine how distance to the nearest all-season road, as well as perceived road quality, affect key market access indicators such as farmgate prices and market participation rates, while controlling for household characteristics such as farm size, crop type, and access to storage facilities. For binary outcomes like market participation, logistic regression will be applied, whereas continuous outcomes such as farmgate prices and the proportion of produce sold will be analyzed using ordinary least squares (OLS) regression. Where possible, robustness checks, such as propensity score matching, will be conducted to minimize bias due to differences between households. Spatial analysis will also form part of the methodology, using GPS coordinates to map household locations relative to roads and markets. This will help visualize physical accessibility and identify any clustering patterns in market access outcomes. Thematic analysis will be applied to the qualitative data, allowing for the identification of recurring themes such as the seasonal impact of road conditions, transport-related challenges, and the influence of road infrastructure on marketing strategies. The integration of both statistical and thematic findings will provide a well-rounded picture of how road infrastructure influences market access in Tamalgu. This combined approach will not only quantify the magnitude of the relationship but also uncover the underlying mechanisms, thus offering valuable insights for policymakers and development practitioners. 1.10 Possible limitations of the study. One major constraint to the progress of this study would be time this because I am a student and have other co-curricular activities to partake in despite the research that I will be conducting and since there is limited amount of time given by the school, I would be forced to race with time. Another challenge would be getting respondents to participate in the study. Since the study area is within a rural community, there may be challenges in finding respondents willing to participate due to their daily activities. Additionally, challenges such as poor accessibility to remote communities during data collection and limited financial resources. References Acheampong, E. O. (2016). Impact of roads on farm size, market participation, and forest cover change in rural Ghana (MPhil thesis). James Cook University. ([JCU Research Online][6]) Amanor, K. S. (2019). Global food chains, African smallholders and rural livelihoods. African Studies Review, 62(2), 51–73. Asante, F. A., Boakye, A. A., & Egyir, I. S. (2020). Infrastructure, market access and economic outcomes in rural Ghana. Journal of Development Studies, 56(7),-. Barrett, C. B. (2008). Smallholder market participation: Concepts and evidence from eastern and southern Africa. Food Policy, 33(4), 299–317. Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications. Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications. Coase, R. H. (1937). The nature of the firm. Economical, 4(16), 386–405. Dzanku, F. M., Jirata, M., & Ayele, G. (2021). Rural infrastructure and market access in sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Ethiopia and Ghana. World Development, 138, 105260. Ghana Statistical Service (GSS). (2021). 2021 Population and Housing Census General Report. Accra, Ghana: GSS Ghana Fact. (2025, March 5). FACT-CHECK: False! Over 60% of Ghana’s workforce are not in agriculture. Ghana Fact Jacoby, H. G. (2000). Access to markets and the benefits of rural roads. The Economic Journal, 110(465), 713–737. ([World Bank][5]) Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607–610. Kumar, R. (2019). Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners (5th ed.). Ziauddin University. Krugman, P. (1991). Increasing returns and economic geography. Journal of Political Economy, 99(3), 483–499. Krugman, P. (2008). The New Economic Geography: Past, present and the future. Nobel Prize Lecture. Nobel Media Lamptey, S. (2024, May 20). Agriculture: Backbone of the economy but primary source of inflation. New Economy Ghana. Oxford Business Group. (2022). How Ghana is improving transport networks in rural areas. Oxford Business Group Owusu, A. F. S. (2019). Effect of road transport accessibility on agricultural produce marketing and livelihoods of farmers in the Kasena-Nankana West District of Ghana. Journal of Development Practice, 5, 45. ([ResearchGate][7]) Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42, 533–544. Williamson, O. E. (1981). The economics of organization: The transaction cost approach. American Journal of Sociology, 87(3), 548–577 World Bank. (2020). Connecting Africa through better rural roads: A strategy for infrastructure-led development. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.