Fio Dorova Atha

Newton and the Netherlands How Isaac Newton was Fashioned in the Dutch Republic Edited by Eric Jorink and Ad Maas Leiden University Press The publication of this book is made possible by a grant from Museum Boerhaave. Cover illustration: Britannia between Newton and W.J. ’s Gravesande, Oil painting by G.M. de Boni, 1787 (courtesy Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome) Cover design and lay-out: Sander Pinkse Boekproductie,Amsterdam ISBN- e-ISBN- (pdf) e-ISBN 978 94 oo6o 123 9 (ePub) NUR 68o / 924 © E. Jorink, A. Maas / Leiden University Press, Amsterdam soıs All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or other- wise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the author of the book. Every e£ort has been made to obtain permission to use all copyrighted illustrations reproduced in this book. Nonetheless, whosoever believes to have rights to this material is advised to contact the publisher. Contents Introduction 7 Eric Jorink and Ad Maas ‘The Miracle of Our Time’ 13 How Isaac Newton was fashioned in the Netherlands Eric Jorink and Huib Zuidervaart Servant of Two Masters 67 Fatio de Duillier between Christiaan Huygens and Isaac Newton Rob Iliffe How Newtonian Was Herman Boerhaave? 93 Rina Knoeff The Man Who Erased Himself 113 Willem Jacob ’s Gravesande and the Enlightenment Ad Maas ‘The Wisest Man to Whom this Earth Has as Yet Given Birth’ 139 Petrus van Musschenbroek and the limits of Newtonian natural philosophy Kees de Pater Low Country Opticks 159 the optical pursuits of Lambert ten Kate and Daniel Fahrenheit in early Dutch ‘Neotonianism’ Fokko Jan Dijksterhuis Defining the Supernatural 185 The Dutch Newtonians, the Bible and the Laws of Nature Rienk Vermij Anti-Newtonianism and Radical Enlightenment 207 Jordy Geerlings Newtonianism at the Dutch Universities during the Enlightenment 227 The teaching of ‘philosophy’ from ’s Gravesande to Van Swinden Henri Krop Authors 250 Index 253 NEWTON AND THE N E T H E R L A N D S 8 vant to Newton’s success. Drawing on the recent trend in the history of science for concepts such as the ‘circulation of knowledge’, and the focus on the processes of reception, adaptation and dissemination, we will argue that ‘Newtonianism’ in the Dutch context was not a stable, coherent system, originating in Britain and waiting to be implemented on the Continent, but a philosophical construction, adapted to local problems and circumstances. The dissemination of Newton was a many-sided and complex process, in which natural philosophy, religious and cultural factors, propaganda and practical concerns, and personal benefits, fears and preferences interacted in a fascinating manner. As this book shows, the ‘Newtonianism’ constructed by Dutch natural philosophers appears to be anything but a fixed and clearly defined set of scientific concepts. Many scholars who have been labeled straightforwardly as ‘Newtonians’, in practice did not embrace Newton’s natural philosophy completely. Actually, the Dutch ‘Newtonians’ mostly used Newton’s ideas in a selective or even defective manner, and were far from dogmatic in their adherence to his work. Moreover, what was understood by ‘Newtonianism’ changed in the course of time. Studying Newtonianism, therefore, is like looking at Dutch fog: it is omnipresent, but intangible as well, it often conceals more than it reveals and at short distances it seems to disappear altogether. It isno surprise that many of the authors in this book are intrigued by the ‘foggy’, intangible character of Dutch Newtonianism. In the first chapter Eric Jorink and Huib Zuidervaart present an overview of the colorful rise of Dutch ‘Newtonianism’, and the way the man himself was put on the map, as well as on the market. As they show, Dutch ‘Newtonianism’ was a label, an intellectual construction, to a large extent molded by an already existing tradition of empirical research and by a Protestant natural theology which gave the study of nature a strong religious connotation. Newton’s natural philosophy was adopted to solve pressing religious and philosophical concerns of Dutch culture, particularly as an antidote to the ‘blasphemous’ ideas of Spinoza. In the second half of the eighteenth century an increasing terminological vagueness became apparent. ‘Newtonianism’ became interchangeable with experimental philosophy, ‘physico-theology’ and natural theology, all of which roughly described the same set of ideas, values and practices. As their research suggests, the sudden success of Newton in the Dutch Republic after the publication of the second edition of the Principia in 1713, and the subsequent pirated INTRODUCTI ON Amsterdam edition, could be seen as the result of a conscious strategy of philosophers and publishers. A particularly penetrating insight into the selective way in which Newton’s ideas were adopted is provided by Fokko Jan Dijksterhuis in chapter 6. His study focusses on the Opticks, Newton’s book about his optical experiments and views (first published in 1704). The reception in the United Provinces of this book, which, unlike the Principia, has little to say on worldviews and religion, provides a revealing look into the practical use of Newton’s work. The polymath Lambert ten Kate and the instrument maker and lecturer Daniel Fahrenheit, two well- known ‘Newtonians’ who became familiar with the Opticks, largely ignored Newton’s central claims and freely picked out the elements they could use. For Fahrenheit the Opticks proved useful for his pur-suits in telescope making, while Ten Kate even aimed to correct some 9 elements of Newton’s optics with his own experiments, because they did not fit his own theories. Both were largely indifferent to Newton’s natural philosophical system. How ‘Newtonian’, then, were these scholars actually? Dijksterhuis ends his article by calling into question the usefulness of the term ‘Newtonianism’, which he considerers ‘too ambiguous, to illuminate historical developments’. ‘To put it briefly’, he concludes, “Newtonianism” is not a fruitful category for doing his- tory of science’. Another chapter that discusses the nature of Dutch ‘Newtonianism’ is the analysis of its intellectual dimension by Rienk Vermij (chapter 7). While emphasizing the heterogeneous character of the Dutch Newtonians, Vermij identifies a common project, namely ‘defining the rela- tion between God and nature in a way which answered both scientific and religious demands’. is ‘project’ had an important impact on the interpretation and perception of Newton’s ideas by Dutch scholars. While in the seventeenth century nature was increasingly considered in terms and concepts adapted from natural philosophy and geometry, there was some unease about its consequences for traditional religious views. e presumption that the universe was direct- ed by a set of eternal and immutable laws of nature could lead to a deterministic worldview in which God’s role was marginalized. What was ultimately at stake, Vermij argues, were not philosophical matters as such, but the authority of the Bible. How could the supernatural events of the Scripture be brought in accordance with new scientific NEWTON AND THE N E T H E R L A N D S 10 developments? From Newton’s natural philosophy a worldview could be derived in which the world depended directly on God’s benevolence. Vermij argues that this worldview was instrumental in achieving a broad consensus that arose in the eighteenth-century Dutch Republic: the miracles and mysteries of the Bible remained outside the scope of scientific interpretations and, on the other hand, supernatural events were no longer considered credible in daily life. Henri Krop establishes (chapter 9) that in the course of the eighteenth century a ‘Newtonian’ philosophical system was taught at the Dutch universities, which included not only natural philosophy, but also a logic and a metaphysics. The rise of such a comprehensive aca- demic Newtonianism was unique to the Netherlands, and was distinct from the popular ‘branch’ of Newtonianism, which in particular found expression in physico-theological writings. Krop focuses mainly on the late eighteenth-century writings of the then influential natural philosopher Jean Henri van Swinden, professor at Franeker and Amsterdam. Van Swinden employed in his metaphysics a Cartesian dualism of the bodily and theimmaterial world. The latter should be investigated by mathematics and metaphysics, the former by observations. us, Van Swinden insisted on a sound combination of rationalism and empiricism for investigating nature, which according to him had a God-given, all-encompassing, teleological order. According to Van Swinden’s interpretation, it was Newton who had managed to combine the deductive and the inductive method in a fruitful manner. This book maintains that even the three Leiden professors who became the figureheads of Newtonianism throughout Europe — Herman Boerhaave, Willem Jacob ’s Gravesande and Petrus van Musschenbroek — cannot simply be regarded as ‘dogmatic’ Newtonians. Rina Knoeff elaborates in chapter 3 that Herman Boerhaave — the first who openly supported Newton in an academic oration — hardly used Newton’s mechanical philosophy at all in his medical work. At the beginning of his career, Boerhaave applied Newton rhetorically to criticize the method of Descartes, as an example of a sound use of mathematics in the study of nature. As he later in his career became increasingly skeptical about the usefulness of the mechanical method for medicine, he no longer referred to the ‘mathematical’ Newton, but rather to his chemistry, to the experimental approach of the Opticks. Knoef concludes that although Boerhaave was inspired by Newtoni- 11 INTRODUCTI ON an methods, he was at the same time critical about Newton’s results. Boerhaave’s turn to chemistry, with its emphasis on non-mechanical powers in the body, even caused a decline of Newtonian medicine from the 1740 s onwards. Nor did Willem Jacob ’s Gravesande, the most influential disseminator of Newton’s ideas in the first decades of the eighteenth century, always follow in the steps of his master. As Ad Maas argues (chapter 4), ’s Gravesande decided to spend his life on popularizing Newton’s natural philosophy not only because of its supreme intellectual qualities but also because it coincided with ’s Gravesande’s personal preferences and furthered his career. Maas suggests that by dissociating Newton’s natural philosophy from the metaphysical and theological concerns that had worried Newton’s early Dutch followers, ’s Gravesande paved the way for the introduction of Newton’s natural philosophical system into the Dutch academic curriculum. Kees de Pater suggests in chapter 5 that in the case of Petrus van Musschenbroek, too, there is a marked discrepancy between rhetoric and scientific practice. Although Van Musschenbroek portrays himself as a wholehearted follower of Newton, he deploys in his researcha rather individual interpretation of what Newtonianism concerns, focusing especially on its empirical aspect. As De Pater concludes, the limits of this approach became clearly visible in Van Musschenbroek’s research, which tended to result in a rather pointless piling up of experimental data. On the other hand, Van Musschenbroek was not always able to abstain from ‘feigning hypotheses’ when speculating about the nature of matter and forces. Two of the contributions to this volume reach beyond the borders of the Dutch Republic.The tragic central figure of Jordy Geerling’s article (chapter 8), Johann Konrad Franz von Hatzfeld, was a German lackey, who spent some years in England, but also stayed for a while in the Republic, the refuge for a number of European freethinkers. In The Hague, Hatzfeld published his La découverte de la vérité (1745), which contained a ferocious attack on Newton’s natural philosophy. Hatzfeld was condemned for the opinions he expressed in his book, not for his attack on Newton, but for his radical religious and political views. His books were burnt and Hatzfeld was banished. Hatzfeld’s story is a case study in how personal and social factors could lead to radicalization. By following Hatzfeld’s footsteps, Geerlings opens a fascinating panorama of marginal intellectuals who NEWTON AND THE N E T H E R L A N D S 12 built perpetua mobilia and considered fermentation to be the driving force of the universe, and of radical Wolfians, Aletophilen, Freemasons and — to be sure — anti-Newtonians. In Rob Iliffe’s article (chapter 2), the somewhat unfathomable figure of Nicolas Fatio de Duiller leads us over the border of the United Provinces. For a while Fatio held a unique position as a close collaborator of both Christiaan Huygens and Isaac Newton, and seemed to be on the brink of joining the ranks of the most prominent mathematicians and natural philosophers. For a brief period of time he seems even to have obtained Newton’s assent for taking care of a revised, second edition of the Principia, in which Fatio would incorporate his own theory of gravity. However, the close association with Newton and Huygens also made it difficult for him to develop his own reputation in the community of natural philosophers, and after the first years of the 1690s, he gradually faded from view. In contrast to the other articles in this volume, Iliffe’s contribution addresses not the dissemination, but rather the genesis of Newton’s ideas. His story describes the intriguing period directly after the publication of the Principia, in which its contents were widely discussed and its main conclusions had not yet taken shape as the indisputable laws of mechanics. is was also the period in which the controversy between Newton and Leibniz about differential calculus started. In both developments, Fatio and Huygens played a significant role. Also in contrast to the other contributions in this book, we see in Iliffe’s chapter the ‘real’ Newton in action. It is here that we finally meet a person who can safely be considered as a Newtonian. Between the English and the Dutch coast lies the North Sea. It is often from this direction that dense fog penetrates the Netherlands. Sometimes, in the patches of fog that move over the country, one can recognize, with a little imagination, the figure of Isaac Newton, chasing the ghost of Spinoza. Note ı We would like to thank Pete Langman and Nadine Akkerman, who came up with the idea for this conference. ‘The Miracle of Our Time’ How Isaac Newton was fashioned in the Netherlands ERIC JORINK AND HUIB ZUIDERVAART Introduction It is partly or even mainly thanks to intellectual circles in the Dutch Republic that Newton’s ideas were after all accepted in the rest of Europe; Dutch scientists and Dutch manuals were responsible for the spread of Newtonianism through Europe. For once, the Netherlands was indeed the pivot of intellectual Europe.2 It is well known that in 1715 Herman Boerhaave -), by far the most famous professor of the Dutch Republic, was the first academic to speak in public strongly in favour of Newton, calling him ‘the miracle of our time’ and ‘the Prince of Geometricians’.3 In the very same year, the mathematician and burgomaster Bernard Nieuwentijt -) published his Het regt gebruik der wereldbeschouwing (The Religious Philosopher: Or, the Right Use of Contemplating the Works of the Creator), a work which would become extremely popular, both in the Netherlands and abroad, and which made important references to Newton.4 Het regt gebruik contributed much to the popularity of the experimental natural philosophy, so characteristic of eighteenth-century Dutch culture. Moreover, in 1715 a young journalist and lawyer named Willem Jacob ’s Gravesande (ı-s), travelled to London 13 ‘ THE M IR AC L E OF OUR T I M E’ It has more or less become a truism that the Dutch Republic played an important, not to say crucial, role in the spread of ‘Newtonianism’ in Europe during the early eighteenth century.ı As Klaas van Berkel has written: NEWTON AND THE N E T H E R L A N D S 14 as secretary to the Dutch ambassador. Here, he attended John Desaguliers’ lectures, made acquaintance with Newton and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Having tasted English ‘Newtonianism’, in 1717 ’s Gravesande was appointed professor of mathematics and astronomy at the famous University of Leiden. As such, he was in the right position to preach the gospel of Newton. Three years later, in 1720, ’s Gravesande published his well-known Physices elementa mathematica, experimentis confirmata: sive introductio ad philosophiam Newtonianam. In this work, ’s Gravesande gave a systematic account of ‘Newtonian’ physics as he saw it. The work was an instant success, going through many editions, translations and reprints. It was through ’s Gravesande’s handbook that his ‘Newtonianism’ was exported to Britain. ’s Gravesande acquired such areputation as an apostle of Newton, that an ambitious young Voltaire came to Leiden in 1735 to follow the professor’s lectures. Voltaire, already fascinated by Newton and his natural philosophy, was by then working on his own Élémens de la philosophie de Newton, to be published in Amsterdam in 1738. For a long time, the sudden popularity of Newton in the Dutch Republic seemed to need no explanation: ‘Newtonianism’ was seen as the logical step, from ‘Aristotelianism’, via ‘Cartesianism’, towards modern science. From this perspective, the introduction in- of Newtonian physics into the academic curriculum was inevitable. In this article, we will argue that ‘Newtonianism’ is a rather problematic term in the Dutch context. The success of Newton’s conception of nature was not predetermined, nor was it self-evident. The philosophical concept named after the great Englishman was an elaboration of an already existing tradition of empirical research, founded in Leid- en in the early seventeenth century: Newton, as he was fashioned by the Dutch, fitted nicely into this tradition. In 1715, in the context of the Protestant Dutch Republic, Newton was modelled into a useful icon, to combat the clergy’s growing fear of extreme rationalism. The emergence of Dutch ‘Newtonianism’, and the popularity of Newton himself, can only be understood in the light of the philosophical and theological developments of the late seventeenth century. For that reason we will present an outline of these developments. ‘Newtonianism’ in the Dutch context was not an imported coherent system, waiting to be implemented, but a philosophical — and to a certain extent social — construction, created for and adapted to specific local problems and circumstances. Scientific culture in the Dutch Republic In the mid-seventeenth century the young Dutch Republic had become one of the most flourishing countries of early modern Europe, not only in terms of commerce but also in terms of art, learning, science and technology.5 During the Dutch Revolt many Protestants had fled the Catholic South and started a new life in the North. is had far-reach- ing consequences: while intellectual life in the sixteenth century had been concentrated in the Southern Netherlands, especially in Antwerp and Louvain, the emphasis now shifted to the North. 6 The Amsterdam region became a the ‘circulation of knowledge’ was perhaps nowhere as intense as in the early modern Low Countries, and this had to do as much with the circulation of scholars which was, in the Carrefour de la République des Lettres, particularly lively, as with the extraordinary nodal points that cities like [first] Ant- werp and [later] Amsterdam represented in the international exchange of goods, news, and skills.7 Lacking an older scholastic tradition, the newly founded Protestant universities of the North, especially those of Leiden (established in 1575) and Utrecht (established in ı636) could be more innovative than most of the older universities. They attracted many students, pro-fessors and visitors from abroad. To give a few examples: the Leiden medical faculty improved upon the new approach introduced by the Italian universities in the sixteenth century. A theatrum anatomicum was established in 1590, as well as a hortus botanicus in 1594, both sup- ported by huge collections of curiosities. In ı634 the university found- ed an astronomical observatory (the first of its kind in Europe) and clinical teaching started two years later, becoming famous through- out Europe during the professorship of the iatro-chemist Francis de le Boë Sylvius -). Up to the era of Boerhaave -), Leiden’s medical faculty was considered the best in Europe, attracting ‘ THE M IR AC L E OF OUR T I M E’ particular hub of trade, traffic and technology, draw- ing not only Protestant refugees from the Spanish Netherlands, but also many Scandinavians and Germans who escaped the Tirty Years’ War, as well as Sephardic Jews and (later in the seventeenth century) French Huguenots. This mixture of persons, ideas and goods provided a fertile soil for the exchange and creation of knowledge. In a recent 15 volume, Sven Dupré and Christoph Lüthy state: NEWTON AND THE N E T H E R L A N D S 16 many students from all over the Continent.8 An empirical approach towards the investigation of nature thus lay deeply rooted in the academic curriculum. An important factor was the religious context of scientific dis- course and practice. The Northern Netherlands was a striking exam- ple of religious pluriformity. The most powerful denomination was the Reformed (Gereformeerde or Contra-remonstrant) Church, which was, however, not the largest in terms of membership; it contained several currents, ranging from the Puritan-like orthodoxy of the influ- ential Utrecht professor of theology Gisbertus Voetius -), to the more liberal followers of his Leiden colleague Johannes Cocceius (ı6o3–ı669). Although the Reformed Church was never to acquire the status of a state religion in the young Republic, and was in fact just one of the many denominations in the religious landscape, it was privileged, and those who held public office (including university professors) were required to subscribe to its doctrines. Besides the Reformed Church there existed a stunning variety of denominations, such as the Remonstrants, Mennonites, Huguenots, Lutherans, Jews, and all kinds of sects, such as Collegiants, Millenarians, Quakers, Labadists and Borelists. Moreover, there was a large Catholic minority. Two things are of importance here: first, that the religious pluriformity of the North stimulated theological, philosophical and scientific debates; and, second, that the largely Protestant culture of the North had a strong undercurrent of natural theology which, in turn, encouraged an open eye towards God’s creation. The notion of the Book of Nature, that is to say, the idea that Creation was the second revelation of God next to the Bible, was of great influence. Important in this respect is the so-called ‘Belgic Confession’ of 1561, a document that formed the basis of the orthodox Reformed Church in the Dutch Republic. Article ii, in the edition of 1619, runs: We know him [God] by two means. First, by the creation, preservation, and government of the universe, since that universe is before our eyes like a beautiful book in which all creatures, great and small, are as letters to make us ponder the invisible things of God: his eternal power and his divinity, as the Apostle Paul says in Romans 1:20. All these things are enough to convict men and to leave them without excuse. Second, he makes himself known to us more openly by his holy and divine word, as much as we need in this life, for his glory and for the salvation of his own.9 17 ‘ THE M IR AC L E OF OUR T I M E’ Since nature was God’s creation, the study of nature was an enterprise with strong religious connotations. The order of nature as a whole, as well as the existence of each and every individual creature, was seen as the manifestation of God, the almighty Architect. is principle was invoked by those who advocated empiricism. Of similar importance in this respect was René Descartes -), who lived in the Dutch Republic from 1628 to 1649. His revolutionary new philosophy, as outlined in the Discours de la méthode (published in Leiden in 1637), was embraced from the start by some university professors from Utrecht and Leiden.ıo To Dutch profes- sors of the (higher) faculty of medicine and the (lower, propaedeu-tic) faculty of philosophy, Descartes’ rationalism and his geometrical, mechanistic approach towards nature, seemed an all-encompassing alternative to the increasingly problematic philosophy of Aristotle. It was within a Cartesian context that new hypotheses, such as Nico- laus Copernicus’ heliocentric theory (De revolutionibus orbium coeles- tium, 1543) and William Harvey’s theory of the circulation of the blood (De motu cordis, 1628) were debated and — after fierce opposition by orthodox theologians — gradually accepted.ıı e work of Christiaan Huygens -), by far the greatest mathematician and nat- ural philosopher of the Dutch Golden Age, is unthinkable without Descartes (although he developed an increasingly sceptical attitude towards the Frenchman’s work).12 However, in the eyes of orthodox theologians and philosophers, Descartes’ philosophy threatened to destroy old certainties. Descartes not only o£ered a new natural philosophy, but a new epistemology and metaphysics as well. Cartesian doubt seemed to open the gate to scepticism and even to atheism. Cartesian physics seemed to presuppose God as a distant engineer and, probably worst of all, Cartesian rationalism implied that all of God’s creation could be explained and understood. In 1642, the orthodox party, led by Voetius, started a long and bitter campaign against the New Philosophy. Although Cartesian- ism was twice oAcially banned from the Universities of Leiden and Utrecht, it was never threatened seriously. The universities’ curators tried to effect a peaceful coexistence between the two sides, alternate- ly appointing Cartesians and Aristotelians to the chairs of medicine, NEWTON AND THE N E T H E R L A N D S 18 philosophy and even theology. Nevertheless, the relations remained strained. The orthodox Voetians saw their worst nightmare come true, when in 1670 Benedictus Spinoza -) anonymously published his Tractatus theologico-politicus. Spinoza, amongst other things, drew the Cartesian notion of the immutable laws of nature to its logical conclusion: God was bound by his own laws and the Biblical miracles could thus never have happened. The Bible was not God’s revelation to man, nor the key to nature’s secrets, but only the history of a certain tribe in the Middle East. In the Ethica (published posthumously in 1678), Spinoza advocated at length the absolute certainties offered by the geometrical method. By now, to the orthodox clergy, rationalism and mathematics seemed the source of atheism and hence of all evil in the world. The problem was not only that Spinoza was seen as irreligious, since he postulated that God and Nature were identical (the notorious Deus sive Natura), but that he claimed his atheistic ideas to be basedon absolute mathematical certainty. This was what rationalism would inevitably lead to: an attack on the authority of Scripture. Spinoza’s philosophy was abhorred by nearly all of his contemporaries, who were convinced that rationalism and the geometrical method would inevitably lead to atheism. In the eyes of many Dutchmen, Spinoza reaped the harvest that Descartes had sown.The Leiden Reformed consistory noted with disgust that the Opera posthuma ‘perhaps since the beginning of the World until the present day [...] surpasses all others in godlessness and endeavours to do away with all religion and set godlessness on the throne’.13 The Leiden city council and the governing body of the university decided that, since the Opera paved the way for ‘an absolute atheism’, the bookwas to be banned immediately, all copies sold were to be confiscat- ed and burned, and the owners fined.14 After ample deliberations, the book was banned by the States of Holland for containing ‘very many profane, blasphemous, and atheistic propositions’.ı5 Besides the contents of Spinoza’s philosophy, there was also a force at work that can be called the personal factor. While earlier philoso- phers such as Aristotle, Francis Bacon -) and even Descartes were only vaguely associated with real persons, the memory of the ‘most horrible of atheists’, the ‘apostate Jew’, the ‘destroyer of Chris- tianity’ remained much alive during the eighteenth century. Pierre Bayle -), ‘le philosophe de Rotterdam’, included an entry on Spinoza in his famous Dictionaire historique et critique (first edition 1697; in later editions this entry was expanded), which was immediately issued as a separate treatise in Dutch, Het leeven van B. De Spinoza, met eenige aanteekeningen over zyn bedrijf, schriften, en gevoelens (1698).ı6 On the basis of thorough research, the Lutheran minister Johannes Colerus -) published his short biography of Spinoza in 1705.ı7 Although both writers vehemently rejected Spinoza’s system, they had to admit that the philosopher had lived like a saint: modest, peaceful, abstemious. is image was endorsed by Spinoza’s correspondence, first published in the banned Opera posthuma (1678), and available to a wide audience through the translation published in De boekzaal van Europe in 1705. Spinoza really presented the most pressing intellectual problem of the later seventeenth and early eighteenth century.ı8 19 ‘ THE M IR AC L E OF OUR T I M E’ Newton enters the stage It was against this background that Newton entered the Dutch intellectual sphere. The first serious attention given to Newton in the Netherlands followed the publication of ‘An Accompt of a New Catadioptrical Telescope’ in the Philosophical Transactions of March 1672. Very few Dutchmen were able to read English at that time, but the invention was also discussed in the Journal des sçavans, an edition of which was published in Amsterdam in 1673. It was Christiaan Huygens who had been personally responsible for the French analysis. Already in January 1672 Huygens was informed of Newton’s invention, in a letter by Henry Oldenburg (c-), the secretary of the Royal Society. Huygens immediately informed Jean Gallois, the editor of the Journal des sçavans, of this remarkable new kind of telescope. 19 Shortly afterwards, in March 1672, Oldenburg sent Huygens Newton’s ‘New Teory about Light and Colours’, which was published in the current issue of the Philosophical Transactions.20 Again Huygens gave a positive response. In July 1672 Huygens wrote to Oldenburg that he appreciated the ‘colour hypothesis of Mr. Newton’, and although the ‘Experimentum crucis’ was a bit obscure in its presentation, he understood that it underscored Newton’s new optical theory. 21 Newton’s invention and his new theory of light prompted Huygens, a skilled lens-grinder who had constructed telescopes and discovered the rings of Saturn, to follow Newton’s work intensely; it had the same e£ect on lesser minds.22 NEWTON AND THE N E T H E R L A N D S 20 Dutch reactions to the first edition of Newton’s Principia (1687) The publication of Newton’s Principia in 1687 aroused great attention in the Netherlands, but only among a small minority. It is well known that Huygens received a copy from the author, studied the book inten- sively, and discussed its contents with Nicolas Fatio de Duillier -). ‘I wish to be in Oxford’, Huygens wrote to his brother, ‘just to meet Mr. Newton, for I greatly admire the beautiful inventions that I find in the book he sent me’.23 Huygens was much impressed by the book, although he did not subscribe to its main idea: the theory of universal gravitation. To Huygens, still working within what might be called a Cartesian framework, the concept seemed to bring back qual- ities such as occult powers and hidden properties. Newton’s theory just seemed ‘absurd’.24 Nevertheless, Huygens appreciated the mathe- matical ingenuity of the Principia, and he recommended the book to the influential Amsterdam burgomaster Johannes Hudde -), one of the very few other Dutchmen able to follow Newton’s calcula- tions.25 As Rob Iliffe describes in this volume, Huygens remained for some years in close contact with Newton, using Fatio de Duillier as a go-between. A third important Dutch intellectual to be acquainted with the Principia at a very early stage was the Leiden professor of philosophy Burchardus de Volder -).26 De Volder, a close friend of Huygens and Hudde, personally met Newton as early as 1674, when he visited England. He was much impressed by Boyle’s and Hooke’s experiments performed at the Royal Society. Back home in Leiden, and with the approval as well as the financial support of the Leiden curators, he started a theatrum physicum in which he used a Boylian air-pump to illustrate his lectures. Leiden University was the first in Europe to provide such facilities for experimental philosophy. Cambridge (where Newton had lectured from 1669 to 1701) followed in 1707, while Paris had to wait until 1751. But as pioneering as it was, De Volder’s initiative fitted neatly into the long-standing empirical traditionin Leiden that had begun with the hortus botanicus and the theatrum anatomicum. Tellingly, the curators approved De Volder’s request in the hope that ‘many students from other universities and academies will be lured hither’ by his often spectacular demonstrations.27 By way of these demonstrative experiments, De Volder (and his lesser-known colleague, Wolferd Senguerd,-) created a fertile ground for the blossoming of eighteenth-century experimental physics. Amsterdam mathematical enthusiasts As Rienk Vermij has shown, the earliest Dutch admirers of Newton were not to be found among university professors, but among an infor- mal group of Amsterdam mathematicians in the ı69os.33 In the Dutch Republic, a lively intellectual culture existed, including many informal clubs where philosophical, religious and scientific ideas were debat- ed. In the midseventeenth century most Dutch cities had a theatrum anatomicum, which not only served for a medical education, but were also used as cultural convergence points: places where a library was formed, natural history specimens were collected and intellectual dis- cussion was possible.34 And there were other forms of intellectual life too. To name a few examples: a group of early followers of Spinoza held 21 ‘ THE M IR AC L E OF OUR T I M E’ Although De Volder also had the privilege of receiving an author’s copy of Newton’s Principia, he never became an advocate for the work’s theories. De Volder’s experimental method was evidently inspired by Boyle, not by Newton. Much like his friend Huygens, De Volder admired the mathematical side of Newton’s work, but he only mentioned Newton in passing during his academic career.28 This was not the case in the lectures of the Scotsman Archibald Pitcairn -), a friend and early follower of Newton, who in 1692 was appointed professor of medicine in Leiden. However, he left this post within a year. Although it is suggested that Pitcairn had an impact on a number of Scottish students who had followed his Leiden lec- tures, there is no hard evidence that he gained any Dutch followers.29 There are other indications that the Leiden academic community had little interest in Newton’s book. In 1687 the influential Leiden bookseller Pieter van der Aa -) received twelve copies of the Principia in commission from Newton’s publisher in London, with the explicit intention of selling them on the Dutch market and at the Frankfurt book fair. But after two years of prudence Van der Aa returned the seven copies that still remained in stock. 3o rough the purchase of the famous library of Isaac Vossius -), Lei- den University acquired a copy of the Principia as early as 1690, but it took twelve years before the collection could be consulted. 31 Even in 1711 the Leiden professor in chemistry, Jacobus le Mort -), ridiculed Newton’s concept of universal attraction. 32 So before 1715, in academic circles, Newton was admired as a mathematician, but not as a physicist. NEWTON AND THE N E T H E R L A N D S 22 weekly meetings in the 1660s; in the same period the research-oriented Collegium Privatum Amstelodamense was founded, which focussedon comparative anatomy and included John Locke -) dur- ing his stay in Amsterdam. In the 1690s the Haarlem-based Collegi- um Physicum discussed problems from the post-Cartesian textbook by Jacques Rohault -), performing experiments and arguing with congenial enthusiasts from elsewhere, such as the Amsterdam Mennonite merchant Lambert ten Kate Hermansz -) and the Rotterdam Quaker Benjamin Furly -).35 The group of Amsterdam mathematicians seemed to have included a broker named Jacob Makreel, a Mennonite merchant named Adriaan Verwer(c-),and the physician, mathematician and regent Bernard Nieuwentijt, who lived in nearby Purmerend. 36 The group was interested not only in mathematics, but in philosophical and religious themes as well. They had many foreign contacts, includ- ing George Cheyne -) and David Gregory -), who kept them informed on British affairs. For example, Nieuwentijt, who was working on infinite series, learned from Gregory that Newton had already published on this topic (apparently this concerned the pieces included in John Wallis’ Algebra of 1685). In 1694 and 1695 Nieuwen- tijt published two mathematical tracts on the brand new calculus, the Considerationes and the Analysis infinitorum, in which he rejected Leibniz’s approach to the subject, but praised Newton, referring several times to lemmas from the book of ‘this illustrious author’, identified later on as the Principia.37 So the Amsterdam group apparently discussed Newton’s Principia at an early stage, and one wonders if its members were among the buyers of the five copies that Van der Aa had sold. Nieuwentijt considered Newton to be the greatest living mathematician, while Verwer embraced the universal law of gravitation. However, this support for Newton was strongly stimulated by ulterior motives. The pious Verwer, an active member of the Amsterdam Mennonite congregation Het Lam en de Toren(The Lamb and the Tower), was typical of the many Dutchmen who sought God outside the boundaries defined by the orthodoxy of the Reformed Church. 38 Although Verwer as far as we know had no academic training, he knew Latin, was a skilled mathematician and maritime expert, and studied history, religion, philosophy and linguistics. He vehemently rejected the Spinozist conception of God and Nature. Already in ı683, he had 23 ‘ THE M IR AC L E OF OUR T I M E’ published a refutation of Spinoza’s Ethics, namely ’t Mom-aensicht der atheistery afgerukt (Atheism Unmasked). Throughout his life, he continued to seek proof of non-natural and non-material forces in Crea- tion, which he evidently found in the work of Newton.39 Verwer’s copyof the Principia, now in Utrecht University Library, contains his manu- script notes.4o In his Inleiding tot de christelyke gods-geleertheid (Intro- duction to Christian Theology, 1698), Verwer explicitly referred to the Principia to prove that the elliptical shape of a planet’s orbit would be impossible ‘without the interception of a Governor, who exists outside these things’.4ı Elsewhere in his book, Verwer used Newton’s formula for the inverse square law to give the mathematical proof that ‘eternal happiness is proportional to good works, and inversely proportional to divine grace’.42 Anti-Spinozism was also to become a life-long concern for Nieuwentijt, who in 1715 and (posthumously) in 1720 would publish two books explicitly directed against the ‘ungodly philosopher’, namely Het regt gebruik der wereldbeschouwingen, ter overtuiginge van ongodisten en ongelovigen (translated into English by John Chamberlayne as The Religious Philosopher: Or, the Right Use of Contemplating the Works of the Creator in 1718) and Gronden van zekerheid [. ] ter wederlegging van Spinoza’s denkbeeldig samenstel (Grounds of Certainty [. ] Intended to Refute Spinoza’s Imaginary System). The main objections of Verwer and Nieuwentijt to Spinoza were that he did not believe in God as the Almighty Creator, but only in blind fate and chance and, moreover, that he undermined Christian faith by claiming absolute mathematical certainty. Both Verwer and Nieuwentijt sought to do the opposite, i.e. to strengthen Christianity on the basis of mathematical arguments. And it was here that Newtonwas put to use. The Englishman was seen as a brilliant mathematician of unimpeachable conduct. But more importantly, Newton made a clear distinction between pure and applied mathematics. Mathemat-ics was essential for the study of nature, but only when mathematical reasoning was tested by experience could one say that mathematics had anything to do with reality.43 is was crucial for Verwer and Nieu- wentijt. In his Gronden van zekerheid the latter used this distinction to tackle Spinoza’s claim to mathematical truth. Moreover, Newton was very clear about the place of God as the ultimate ruler of the universe. The metaphysical nature of gravity underscored this picture of Newton as a real Christian mathematician. Newton’s work seemed to provide an uncontested basis for a truly Christian natural philosophy. Newton saved, so to speak, the mechanical way of reasoning, from the atheistic spell of Descartes and Spinoza.44 Thus, in the wake of the publication of the first edition of the Principia, a small group in the Netherlands created an image of Newton which presented him not just as a pious mathematician, but as a philosopher whose message was relevant tothe whole of Christianity. It was these aspects that set the stage for Newton’s later success in the Dutch Republic.45 Without this aura, he would never have been so influential. NEWTON AND THE N E T H E R L A N D S 24 Jean Le Clerc This pious fashioning of Newton would have been impossible if his anti-Trinitarian tract, An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture, which he had sent to Locke in the early 1690s, had been printed by the Amsterdam publisher Jean Le Clerc -). This Swiss Huguenot had to flee from his native Geneva because of his unorthodox ideas and subsequently earned a living in Amsterdam as a journalist and professor of theology at the Remonstrant seminary. For a few months, Newton favoured the idea of allowing Le Clerc to pub- lish a Latin or French translation of his Historical Account, but then he withdrew it.46 As is now well known, Newton spent much of his time on biblical criticism, millenarian prophecies and alchemy. Only a small circle knew of Newton’s heterodox ideas. But in the wake of the Principia, he seriously considered publishing some of his religious works. In the Historical Account, Newton argued that the dogma of the holy Trinity had no foundation in Scripture, and that the biblical passages 1 John 5-7 (the ‘Johannine comma’) and 1 Timothy 3-16 were corrupt. Le Clerc’s copy, written in Locke’s hand, went missing. e work was finally pub- lished in 1754.47 Had Le Clerc published it in the 169os, Newton would have had a lifelong reputation among the Dutch for propagating unor- thodox, if not heretical, ideas, putting him firmly in the camp of free- thinkers and atheists, with Isaac la Peyrère -), Isaac Vossius and Spinoza.48 Le Clerc, who was a personal friend of Verwer, would serve the ‘Newtonian case’ in other ways.49 He edited the Bibliothèque universelle, which was the only Dutch-issued journal to publish a review of Newton’s Principia. The review was printed anonymously in 1688, but was in fact written by Locke, who lived in the Dutch Republic from 25 ‘ THE M IR AC L E OF OUR T I M E’ 1684 to 1688, and would have a notable impact on the intellectual life of the Netherlands.50 Other Dutch journals, such as Pierre Bayle’s Nouvelles de la République des Lettres, completely ignored the Principia. Given Locke’s review, Le Clerc must have had a basic idea of the Principia. But like Verwer, he was rather eclectic. When in 1696 he wrote a textbook on physics, he just repeated the views of several authors on various subjects, including a brief account of Newton’s theory of gravi- ty, which he used to repudiate the Cartesian vortices, although he still interpreted gravity in a corpuscular way. 51 Evidently Le Clerc accepted Newton’s way of mathematical reasoning, without giving it credit as an accurate picture of reality. The Amsterdam scholar would again pay attention to Newton’s work after the 1706 Latin edition of Newton’s Opticks, a work whose somewhat neglected reception in the Netherlands is addressed by Rina Knoe£ and Fokko Jan Dijksterhuis in this volume. Le Clerc was one of the few in the Republic to review the Opticks. It is tempting to see a connection between the enthusiasm for Newton among the Amsterdam amateurs and the ‘Newtonian’ edition of Rohault’s famous textbook on physics, issued in 1708 by the Amsterdam pub- lisher Johannes Wolters.52 At first sight Rohault’s work was a manual on Cartesian physics, but in 1696 — and again in 1702 — the English Newtonian Samuel Clarke had produced an edition with very extensive notes, adding many references to the Principia. In fact, before ıyı3 this annotated Rohault edition was for many scholars the first introduction to Newton’s way of physical reasoning.53 During these years Le Clerc’s enthusiasm for Newton increased. In 169o, he called Newton ‘this great mathematician’ and in 1706 ‘one of the greatest mathematicians that ever lived’. But he really became a Newtonian after reading the second edition of the Principia, published in Cambridge in 1713. In a review in his new journal Bibliothèque anci- enne et moderne he called Newton without reservations ‘the greatest mathematician the world has ever seen’.54 According to Le Clerc, it was Newton who gave the coup de grâce to materialistic and atheistic speculations. As Vermij has noted, ‘upon reading the second editionof the Principia Le Clerc apparently came to realize the full impact of Newton’s ideas’.55 In his review he focused mainly on Roger Cotes’ preface and on the new ‘Scholium’, the two additions which were so successful in giving the highly abstract book a more philosophical twist.Le Clerc was a sworn enemy of Descartes’ materialism and of Spino- za’s conception of nature, and now he realized that Newton stipulated that the universe was governed by a force — gravitation — which could not be explained in any mechanical way. is anti-materialistic approach was exactly what he needed. e law of universal gravita- tion described with mathematical precision what happened in the heavens, but its nature was evidently metaphysical. It therefore provided the ultimate proof of God’s existence. In 1715, in the introduction to a series of reviews of works by other British scholars, like George Cheyne, John Ray and William Derham, Le Clerc added that Newton’s principles: NEWTON AND THE N E T H E R L A N D S 26 show that it is impossible that the world has been made, and remains in its present state, by purely mechanical forces and movements. This leads us to recognise that there is a fully immaterial God, who is the creator of the world. [...] is is quite different from the principles of Descartes, who believed that it sufficed for God to have given motion to matter just once to see everything in the world, or at least everything material, come forth from it.56 For the Dutch scholars Newton had published the second edition of his book at the right time. He entered the stage at a moment when the discontent with Cartesian physics and Spinozist rationalism was mounting. In other words, Newton became so successful not because he was right, but because he was useful. In the Dutch context, his work was increasingly considered as much more than a physical the- ory, but as the incontestable basis of a Christian philosophy of nature. Inspired by Cotes’ foreword to the Principia and the remarks in the Scholium, the book was no longer seen as a rather abstruse hypothetical description of the world system, but as a major achievement in natural philosophy. Dutch culture at this time showed a preoccupation with mathematicians and the problem of certainty, as well as with atheism, and ‘Newtonianism’ was now presented as the answer to all these problems. The pirated Amsterdam edition of the 1713 Cambridge version of the Principia As is well known, the real triumph of Newton on the Continent started with the second edition of the Principia.57 The Cambridge edition Fig. 1 & 2: The two Amsterdam reprints of Newton’s Principia, issued by an ‘anonymous’ Amsterdam publisher, using the device Vis unita major (The united force is greater). 27 ‘ THE M IR AC L E OF OUR T I M E’ was published in May 1713, and according to a list personally made by Isaac Newton, probably some seventy copies were distributed as presentation copies, among which were four for the university libraries in Leiden, Utrecht, Franeker and Groningen.58 Bearing in mind that, among the group of scientific enthusiasts in Amsterdam, Newton was seen as an anti-atheistic and trustworthy guide to a new handling and study of nature, we can now understand better why within a few months after the second Cambridge edition of the Principia, a pirated version was printed, with a new typeface and re-engraved plates, in the city. In the Newtonian scholarship little attention is given to this Amsterdam edition, which appeared first in 1714, and was reprinted in 1723 in a slightly expanded version (fig. ı) .59 A closer look at these two pirated editions reveals some intriguing facts, relevant to a better understanding of the reception of Newton in the Republic. The Amsterdam edition was announced in July/August 1713 in a new Dutch-issued journal in French, the Journal littéraire de La Haye. The anonymous journalist wrote that this reprint was to be published by a company of booksellers (‘une compagnie des libraires’) and would be based on the second edition of the Principia which had just been NEWTON AND THE N E T H E R L A N D S 28 published in England (‘qui vient de paroître en Angleterre’).6o Obviously, the editors of the Journal were very well informed about events both in England and in Amsterdam. It soon turned out that the pirat- ed edition was issued as a joint venture of at least ten Amsterdam booksellers and printers, using the device Vis unita major (The unit- ed force is greater). is company was founded in 1711 in response to an agreement between 54 book publishers from Amsterdam, Leiden, The Hague, Rotterdam and Utrecht, in an attempt to regulate the book trade. e pirating of foreign books was also discussed in this com- pact, which in some cases would be an enterprise only to be tolerated if it was a concerted action, with a shared profit.61 In regard to the Principia the obvious question is: why would such a large group of booksellers expect a profit from the illegal issue of a justreprinted difficult book, the sales of whose first edition of 250–400 Copies had been notoriously poor? Why did they expect to profit from this investment? And who took the initiative for this costly enterprise — with an estimated print run of 750 copies — and for what reasons?62 As we will outline below, the 1714 Amsterdam reprint coincided with a Newtonian o£ensive not only by Le Clerc, but also by Boerhaave, Nieuwentijt, ’s Gravesande and the versatile scholar Lambert ten Kate. As Meindert Evers has already remarked in a survey of Newton’s recep- tion in one of Le Clerc’s journals, it seemed that this was a konzertierte Aktion: a coordinated action to put Newton firmly on the map, as well as on the market.63 The truth of this claim remains a matter of specula- tion, but it cannot be disputed that within three years of the launch of the second edition, many Dutch professors and non-academics, both in Latin and in the vernacular, strongly spoke out in favour of Newton and his method. So let us examine the Amsterdam reprint in greater detail. Who might have been involved in it? Let us start with the announcement in the Journal littéraire of July/ August 1713. is journal had been started just a few months before by Thomas Johnson, a Scottish bookseller whose shop in The Hague was a centre for British citizens residing in Holland. It was probably Johnson who organized a steady correspondent for the Journal littérai- re in London, in the person of Pierre des Maizeaux (c-), a Huguenot and an acquaintance of Le Clerc. 64 In 1720 Des Maizeaux would also edit the Amsterdam edition of the famous Leibniz-Clarke correspondence on the priority dispute with Newton in regard to the invention of di£erential calculus.65 Since 1708 Johnson had maintained 29 ‘ THE M IR AC L E OF OUR T I M E’ close contacts with the Amsterdam publisher Jean-Louis de Lorme (one of Le Clerc’s main publishers), who (until his departure to France in 1711) provided him — as the only bookseller in The Hague — with a copy of all the ‘livres étrangers’ published in Amsterdam.66 After 1711 De Lorme’s role as Le Clerc’s publisher and probably also as Johnson’s provider of foreign books was taken over by the brothers Rudolf and Gerard Wetstein.67 This publishing company participated in the Vis unita major book company that would publish the Principia. So it is evident that information, both from the English edition of the Principia and from the Amsterdam initiative, came together in The Hague. Then there was the editorial board of the Journal littéraire. At its very start in 1713 the journal was run by two Dutch Huguenots, Albert Henri de Sallengre -) and Thémiseul de Saint Hyacinthe -), together with two genuine Dutchmen, Justus van Effen -) and Willem Jacob ’s Gravesande. As Ad Maas describes in his contribution to this volume, in later years ’s Gravesande would become the most influential figure in spreading the fame of Newton and systematizing a natural philosophy he called ‘Newtonianism’. But in 1713 ’s Gravesande was still working as a lawyer in The Hague, having finished his education at Leiden University in 1707, where he had matriculated in the faculty of law three years before. However, ’s Gravesande had been interested in mathematics, physics, ethics and philosophy for a long time and during his student years he even wrote a work, Essai de perspective, which was published in The Hague in 1711. There he became one of the founders of the Journal littéraire (1713). Most likely, it was ’s Gravesande who was the editor responsible for the many articles devoted to physics and mathematics.68 Generally, the Journal took a leading role in propagating books on natural theology, such as Derham’s Physico-theology, with the explicit aim of refuting atheism.69 We know for certain that ’s Gravesande was acquainted with Bernard Nieuwentijt, who was directly related to the Amsterdam mathematicians. Contacts between Nieuwentijt and ’s Gravesande date back to 1712, when the latter made a calculation on the ratio of the number of newborn boys and girls, a piece which Nieuwentijt would include in his aforementioned book, Het regt gebruik.70 This bestseller was published in 1715 by the widow of Johannes Wolters, together with her son from an earlier marriage, Joannes Pauli. ey too were participants in the Amsterdam Vis unita major company that brought the Principia Fig. 3: Jean Le Clerc, together with Willem Jacob ’s Gravesande, the main constructor of Dutch ‘Newtonianism’. NEWTON AND THE N E T H E R L A N D S 30 into print. As a matter of fact, in Het regt gebruik some vignettes are exactly identical to those used in the pirated edition of the Principia.71 When we combine these facts with a statement made in 1722 in a letter by Nicolaas Struyck -), an Amsterdam mathematician with close connections to the Amsterdam Vis unita major publishing consortium, the identities of the actors responsible for the Amsterdam Newton editions becomes more clear.72 To one of his correspondents Struyck remarked that he had found some printing errors in his own 171 4 Amsterdam copy of Newton’s Principia, which faults he would report to ‘Professor ’s Gravesande, who is here supervising a third edi- tion’.73 Obviously this was not a statement concerning the genuine third London edition, issued by Cotes in 1726, but rather the second Amsterdam printing of the Principia. This edition with a new typeface was issued in 1723. Moreover, this second Amsterdam printing would become the only version in which Newton’s wish to include four small mathematical tracts was fulfilled. Who else than a person with close contacts to Newton could be aware of this wish of the great ‘Master’?74 With this knowledge in mind, it seems plausible that a collective effort of Le Clerc, ’s Gravesande and, perhaps, Nieuwentijt, was the driving force behind the Amsterdam printing of 1714. ’s Gravesande probably played the same role at the second extended print run of 1723. 31 ‘ THE M IR AC L E OF OUR T I M E’ Putting Sir Isaac on the shield: The construction of an antiatheistic Dutch ‘Newtonianism’ In early 1715 Jean Le Clerc contributed to the ‘new’ Newtonian offensive by including in his Bibliothèque ancienne et moderne a French translation of large parts of a book by the British ‘Newtonian’ George Cheyne, entitled Philosophical Principles of Natural Religion (London170 5). In this publication Le Clerc again pointed to ‘the most sublime and very important truths’ that Newton had discovered.75 Based on Le Clerc’s lengthy summary in the Bibliothèque, the aforementioned Lambert ten Kate soon made a loose Dutch translation, to which he added extensive personal remarks.76 Like his close friend Verwer, Ten Kate had a Mennonite background. As a well-to-do citizen, he could spend most of his time as a virtuoso, studying history, the arts, linguistics, philosophy and the natural sciences. Ten Kate certainly used Newton’s thoughts on religion to promote scientific interest among the Dutch. The long title of his adaptation of Cheyne, published in 1716, leaves little doubt as to Ten Kate’s interests: Den Schepper en Zyn bestier te kennen in Zyne schepselen (To Know the Creator from His Creatures, According to the Light of Reason and Mathematics, [written] to Cultivate a Respectful Religion; to Destroy the Basis of Atheism; and for an Orthodox Use of Philosophy).77 According to Ten Kate, all scientif- ic research should be subservient to a better understanding of divine Revelation. In the introduction of his book, Ten Kate underlined the fact that Descartes’ mechanical philosophy led to Spinoza’s system. However, both philosophers had neglected experience and experiments, and had abused mathematics, ‘but some distinguished men in England, who disliked the uncertainties of hypotheses, have based themselves only on a Philosophia Experimentalis, by means of mathematics’.78 The success of this approach was demonstrated by ‘the most famous mathematician Newton’ who had discovered the law of gravitation, thereby eliminating the dangers of philosophy and putting mathematics at the basis of religion: ‘Sir Newton gave such a mathematical account of Nature, that man cannot but see God’s hand in the