Enoghase Itua Erasmus

SERUM CHEMISTRY OF BROILER CHICKEN FED WITH VARYING LEVELS OF SUNDRIED FALSE YAM MEAL (Icacina trichantha) CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Broiler chickens are an essential component of the global poultry industry, providing a significant source of protein for human consumption. The rapid growth and efficient feed conversion of broiler chickens have made them a popular choice for meat production. However, inadequate poultry and livestock feed supply and nutrition had been identified as the major constraint to poultry and livestock production in Nigeria, this is so because the conventional livestock feed stuffs source have been very expensive especially in monogastric diets such as poultry, pig, and rabbit. The search for locally available feedstuffs that can substitute these conventional energy/protein feed ingredient at cheep cost is imperative. The insufficient production of the local feed resource coupled with high cost of importation of foreign feedstuffs for poultry also had tremendous increase in the cost of poultry production in Nigeria, hence, this have led researchers and poultry producers to explore alternative feed sources. (Madubuike and Ekenyem 2006; Obidenma, 2009). One such alternative that has gained attention in recent years is false yam meal, derived from the tubers of false yam plants (Icacina trichantha). False yam, also known as Icacina trichantha, is a drought-resistant shrub native to tropical Africa. The plant produces large, starchy tubers that can be processed into meal for animal feed. The potential of false yam meal as a partial substitute for maize in broiler diets has been investigated due to its availability, nutritional composition, and lower cost compared to conventional feed ingredients (Akinola et al., 2020). The incorporation of alternative feed ingredients in broiler diets requires careful evaluation of their effects on bird health, growth performance, and meat quality. One crucial aspect of assessing the impact of dietary changes is the analysis of serum chemistry parameters. Serum chemistry provides valuable insights into the physiological status of broiler chickens and can reveal potential metabolic alterations or health issues associated with dietary modifications (Olukomaiya et al., 2020). Sun-dried false yam tuber meals contain 486.3 g/kg starch, high levels of neutral detergent fibre (286.1 g/kg dry matter (DM)), but low levels of crude protein (CP) (54.1 g/kg DM) (Dei et al., 2011). Umoh & Iwe (2014) reported that false yam is a good source of the micronutrients that are necessary for human nutrition such as potassium, sodium, calcium and zinc. Recently, extensive research has focused on the phytochemical profile of Icacina trichantha Oliv. It revealed pimarane-type diterpenoid compounds belonging to the small subclasses of 17-norpimarane, (9βH)-pimarane, (9βH)-17-norpimarane, 16,17-di-norand 17,19-di-nor-pimarane, a rare compound class in nature (Onakpa et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2015; Guo et al., 2016). Pimarane-type momilactones are also found in rice plants (Oryza sativa) and mosses (Hypnum plumaeforme and Pseudoleskeella papillosa).These secondary metabolites are known for their cytotoxic and antitumor activities (Onakpa et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2007) and are reported to function as phytoalexins and allelochemicals (Nozaki et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2012; Kato-Noguchi & Peters, 2013). Hence several Icacina species are used in popular herbal medicine to treat food poisoning, constipation and malaria and as a starch source during famine for the people of tropical West Africa (Asuzu et al., 1999; Sarr et al., 2011). Seeds, leaves and tubers of false yam have been described as low-cost alternative feeds for poultry and rabbit production in Ghana (Ansah et al., 2012; Dei et al., 2015a; Alhassan, 2015). However, despite the false yam’s abundance in the northern part of the country, its use as alternative poultry feed has been limited. This is probably due to anti-nutritional factors in raw false yam meals (Dei et al., 2011), which affect final bodyweights and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens negatively (Teye et al., 2011). The serum chemistry of broiler chickens is a critical indicator of their health and metabolic responses to dietary changes. Parameters such as serum protein, glucose, cholesterol, and enzyme levels are used to assess the impact of different feed ingredients on the overall health and performance of poultry (Ajayi et al., 2018). This study aims to investigate how the substitution of maize with false yam meal affects the serum chemistry of broiler chickens, providing insights into the nutritional viability and safety of using Icacina trichantha as a feed alternative. Understanding the effects of false yam on the serum chemistry of broilers is important for ensuring that the dietary substitution does not negatively impact their health. The results of this study could offer valuable information for poultry farmers looking to reduce feed costs while maintaining the productivity and well-being of their flocks. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY The objective of the study is to assess the Serum chemistry of broiler chicken fed with varying levels of sundried false yam meal (Icacina tricantha) Specific objective is to: Assess the serum chemistry of broiler chicken fed experimental diets such as: total protein, albumin, creatinine and urea. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Broiler chicken The broiler chicken, selectively bred for rapid growth and efficient meat production, represents a cornerstone of the global poultry industry. This aspect examines various aspects of broiler chicken production, genetics, nutrition, health, and welfare, highlighting recent findings and trends. Broiler chicken genetics have undergone significant advancements to enhance growth rates and meat yield. Recent studies focus on understanding the genetic basis of rapid growth and improved feed conversion efficiency. Selection for specific traits, such as breast muscle development, has led to the development of specialized broiler breeds (Havenstein et al., 2003). The ongoing challenge lies in balancing growth traits with overall bird health and welfare. Nutrition plays a crucial role in broiler performance. Recent literature explores novel feed formulations, additives, and dietary strategies to optimize growth, carcass quality, and feed efficiency. Research on the inclusion of alternative protein sources, prebiotics, and probiotics aims to improve nutrient utilization and reduce environmental impacts (Kierończyk et al., 2020). Understanding nutrient requirements at different growth stages is essential for formulating cost-effective and sustainable diets. Broiler chicken farming in Nigeria has experienced significant growth and transformation over the years, reflecting the country's increasing demand for poultry products. This literature review explores various facets of broiler farming in Nigeria, covering production practices, challenges, opportunities, and the broader implications for the poultry industry. 2.1.1 Production Practices: Broiler production in Nigeria has evolved with a focus on intensification and commercialization. Recent literature highlights the adoption of improved genetics, feed formulations, and management practices to enhance growth rates and overall productivity. The use of high-yielding broiler breeds, advanced feeding strategies, and modern housing systems has contributed to increased efficiency in meat production (Oladunjoye et al., 2017). Research on optimized feeding programs and dietary supplements aims to address the specific nutritional requirements of broilers, considering local feed resources and cost-effectiveness. 2.1.2 Challenges in Broiler Farming: Despite advancements, broiler farming in Nigeria faces various challenges. Disease outbreaks, particularly avian influenza, pose a significant threat to the industry. Research emphasizes the importance of biosecurity measures, vaccination protocols, and early disease detection strategies to mitigate these risks (Oluwayelu et al., 2018). Additionally, market fluctuations, inadequate infrastructure, and the high cost of inputs contribute to the challenges faced by both small-scale and large-scale broiler farmers. 2.1.3 Economic Impacts and Opportunities: Broiler farming plays a crucial role in Nigeria's economy, providing employment opportunities and contributing to household income. Recent literature explores the economic implications of broiler production, including its contribution to the agricultural sector and potential for poverty alleviation (Aromolaran, 2018). The growing demand for poultry products, coupled with increasing urbanization and changing consumer preferences, presents opportunities for expansion and diversification within the broiler value chain. 2.1.4 Technology Adoption and Innovation: Advancements in technology and innovation have the potential to revolutionize broiler farming in Nigeria. Recent studies discuss the adoption of digital tools, precision farming techniques, and data-driven decision-making processes. These technologies aim to improve efficiency, reduce resource wastage, and enhance overall farm management practices (Adeola, 2017). Additionally, the integration of renewable energy sources and sustainable practices is gaining attention, aligning with global trends in agribusiness sustainability. 2.1.5 Government Policies and Interventions: Government policies and interventions play a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of broiler farming in Nigeria. Recent literature emphasizes the need for supportive policies that address key challenges faced by farmers, including access to credit, market infrastructure, and regulatory frameworks (Ojo et al., 2020). Evaluating the impact of existing policies and proposing targeted interventions based on empirical evidence is crucial for fostering a conducive environment for sustainable broiler production. 2.1.6 Environmental Considerations: The environmental sustainability of broiler farming is gaining importance in the discourse surrounding poultry production. Recent studies investigate the environmental impacts of broiler farming practices, emphasizing the need for waste management strategies, water conservation, and sustainable land use (Amao et al., 2019). Balancing the economic benefits of broiler farming with environmental stewardship is essential for long-term industry viability. 2.2 Nutrient Requirement of Poultry Modern poultry production in any part of the world is based on the manipulation of genetic and environmental factors t hat affect intensively reared poultry. This includes feeding well-balanced and hygienically produced diets to highly productive birds. According to Okoh (2006), poultry feeds are referred to as "complete" feeds because they are designed to contain all the protein, energy, vitamins, minerals and other nutrient necessary for proper growth, egg production and health of the birds, Leclery et al (1997) asserted that, quantities of nutrients assimilated by poultry birds defines requirements for water, dietary energy yielding ingredient, protein and essential amino acid, minerals and vitamin. 2.2.1 Water Requirement of Poultry Water is understandably necessary to sustain life. Poultry will consumie twice as much as feed by weight. Therefore, water quaity is of ervat concem. Therefore, water should be tested for mineral content as in some cases minerals found in the water soure have infuenced the mineral requirements of the feed. Also of importance is the level of bacteria in the water as excessive level will cause poor weight gain, deceased ate of lay and may lead to higher rates of mortality similar concern for water nitrate or nitrite level in excess of 50ppm will affect the performance of poultry. 2.2.2 Protein Requirement of Poultry Protein intake, which is vital for the optimum performance in increase in weight. Under normal circumstance, birds are known to eat more as they grow older and presumably increase in weight through the protein consumed per unit weight either reduces or stays constant. Since protein is not stored in the body to any appreciable extent, any protein will be oxidized to produce energy although uneconomical. Olomu and Offiong (1990) reported that a protein level of 23% and energy level of 28000kcal/kg may be recommended for starting broilers raised in Nigeria. For finisher broilers, a protein level of 20% and energy of 3000kcal/kg diet may be recommended. Olumo (1995) recommended a crude protein of 24% for broiler starter and ME of 3000kcal/kg for finisher, and 20% crude protein and ME 3000kcal/kg for finisher, 18% crude protein for those aged 4-12 weeks, while 11% crude protein for those aged 12-15 weeks. Hutagalung et al (1997) reported on the effects of broiler dietary metabolisable energy 12.60r 24.2mj/kg and energy and protein ratio of 72.26 or 52.31. The bird grew faster and had better efficiency of feed conversion in the low energy diet with increasing dietary protein. The addition of palm oil increased net energy in the diet. Virk and Lodhi (1991) found out that the relative rate of gain from 2-6 weeks increases with protein in the diet (22.5% cp to 24% cp), indicating starter requirement of 22.5-24.6%, the 22.5% protein was marginal for rapid growth for starter but appeared to compensate for the earlier growth differences. Recent studies showed that protein intake of diets at approximately 21% was close to the physiological optimum for the growing chicks when the feed is fed from hatching to maturity. However, Bird (1954) was of the view that the requirement of protein by young chicks up to eight (8) weeks of age is 20% of the diet. Donaldson et al (1983) found that chicks fed high energy diets needed higher dietary protein content than those fed on low energy diets maximum growth, carcasses and fat content. Pesti and Fletcher (1993) reported that multiple regression and response surface techniques can be iscd to investigate the relationship between protein i metabolisable energy. In the report of Scott et al (1980) growing broilers will maintain qual growth performance by adjusting food intake if fed diets of different nutrient content. Farell et al (1973) and Olomu (1986) reported that there is an optimum energy concentration in a ration beyond which performance of chick do not appear to improve and in some cases actually depreciate. Additionally that protein utilization may remain remarkably constant as protein intake varies between deficiency and adequacy in situations where protein source employed is well balanced. Crude protein content of the carcass was lower however in the low protein diets in growing chickens (Jeroch et al 1975). Mcnab and Shannon (1972) stated that a higher protein level promotes greater muscles development, while Bartor et al (1974) in their own view concluded that higher protein level promotes higher feed conversion and carcass. Standards have been established to cover the needs for crude protein plus amino acid contents for poultry under varying environmental conditions. The recommendations of protein requirements for broiler starter diet are 23% (NRC, 1971) which is in agreement with that of Oluyemi and Roberts (2000) with a lower crude protein percentage of 20% for finisher diet. (Table 2.1) Fetuga (1984) showed that the need for protein is essentially a need for amino acid requirement of tropical livestock and that do not differ markedly from those of the temperate. This implies that efficient production is possible at lower protein level, if proper balance of amino acid is maintained. Table 2.1: Requirement of chicken for Energy Protein and some amino acid Ages of birds (wks) 0-6 7-10 ME (kcal/kg) 3,700 3,200 Protein (%) 23 20 Lysine (%) 1.25 1.1 Methonire + Cysine (%) 0.86 0.75 Cysine (%) 0.40 0.35 Source: Oluyemi and Roberts, (2000) Table 2.2: Protein Requirement of broiler chickens in Relation to Energy Requirement (%) Starting diet (0-6wks) 6wks & above 2,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,410 21.2 Source; Scott et al (1969). 2.23 Amino Acid Requirement of Poultry The requirement for essential amino acid is assessed by giving diets containing different levels of the amino acid requirements of chickens. They are of great nutritional importance than the intact protein (Oluyemi and Roberts, 2000). There are thirteen (13) essential amino acids for poultry of which lysine, methonine and cystine are most limiting during the early growth period, while lysine becomes the most limiting in the later stage. If lysine is deficient in the diet, it is synthesized by the animal from methonine. The requirement for methonine is therefore partially dependent on the cystine content in the diet and the two are usually considered together. Thus, methonine in poultry diet improves feed utilization, egg, size, reduce mortality and cannibalism and prevents the accumulation of excess fat in layers. While, lysine deficiency is associated with depigmentation of feathers as essential for the growth of chicks (Oluyemi and Roberts, 2000). It is generally known that there is both reduction in growth rate and feed intake in animals given diets with undesirable pattern of amino acid (Kumpta and Haper, 1960). Thaku et al (1988) reported that pullets of 20-40weeks old require diets with crude protein of 18, 16 and 14 and lysine of 0.75, 0.70 and 0.5 methiomine + cystine of 0.60 and 0.55 at each protein level. The observed percentage hen-day production was maximum in 18% dietary crude protein with supplemented amount of amino acid, while feed efficiency was least for 14% crude protein. Value obtained from amino acid requirement can vary widely, and experiments have shown that the chicks tolerate 4% of glycine only if adequate nicotinic acid is fed, but at 8% growth rate is retarded even in the presence of excess nicotinic acid. As stated earlier by Oluyemi and Robert (1979), diets containing 0.86% and 1.25% lysine obtained by supplementation with synthetic amino acid, lower levels of dietary protein may be used. Antibiotics decrease the requirements for amino acids if added to the diet, by suppressing bacterial growth or by increasing the rate of amino acid absorption by the intestinal tracts. The presence of anti-nutritional factors in the diets may also alter the amino acid requirement. All factors which affect feed consumption affective the requirement of amino acid such as energy level of feed and temperature (Kubena et al 1974). 2.2.4 Energy Requirement of Poultry The concept that birds eat to satisfy their energy needs seems to apply more in the feeding of broiler chicks than any other poultry birds. N.R.C. (1971) however, reported that it was difficult to fix a basis on which dietary energy concentration can be recommended for broilers. Some workers like Gardiner (1971) Nowland et al (1971), and Faroll (1972) observed that difference occur in the response of different breeds, strains of chickens to diets with the same of different energy concentrations. Wells (1963) equally stated that the response of different sexes and their requirement for energy have not been the same. Animals eat to meet their energy requirement and so the energy content of the diet is the most important factor regulating intake. It follows therefore that in formulating rations with a range of energy concentrations, it is necessary to keep the relationship between energy and all essential nutrients constant particularly in order to maintain amino acid balance (Combs, 1982). Payne and Lewis (1984), Farrell et al (1973) and Farrell (1974) asserted that there is an optimum energy concentrations in the diets, beyond which performance of broilers does not appear to improve and in some cases actually deteriorate. This is because of inverse relationship feed intake has with energy concentration. Wells (1963), Donaldson et al (1955) stated that at very low energy concentration, the chick may not meet its energy requirement and at high energy, it may consume more feed than is required for maximum growth and the excess energy may be deposited as fat. Peterson 1970) attributed excess fat deposition to partial efficiency of utilization of metabolisable energy for fat synthesis which is about 50%. Increase in metabolisable energy availability of feed and the consequent increase in growth rate can be achieved when broiler feeds are pelleted at dietary energy concentration below the recommended levels (Carew et al 1963); Sell and Thompson, (1965). Performance of birds, environmental temperature and feed intake have a way of interacting and this interaction is of importance in formulation of poultry diets for different seasons and geographical locations. Feed intake is inversely related to ambient temperature Farrell and Swain (1977) stated that there is diminishing energy requirement for maintenance with temperature up to 26 and 27°c as shown by the decreasing feed consumption or heat production. Based on the above facts, Farrell et al (1973) and N.R.C. (1971) recommended 3200kcal/kg metabolisable energy for broiler reared in temperature zones A.R.C. (1963) approved dietary energy levels of 3200kcal/kg and 2850kcal/kg metabolisable energy for broiler birds reared from one (1) day old to eight (8) weeks of age respectively. Ichhponani et al (1972) recommended 3200kcal of metabolisable energy for the starter broiler during winter and 2900kcal me/kg of ration for the finisher in summer in temperature regions. However, Olomu (1976) and Febuga (1994) recommended lower energy values in the range of 2800 to 3000kcal of metabolisable energy per kilogramme of feed for Nigerian Farmers since tropical environment is characterized by high ambient temperature and heat stress. The energy requirement of birds is met entirely from the chemical energy content of the feed. Energy retained in body is metabolisable energy (ME) which account for about 80% of the gross energy. Comparison between metabolisable and productive (net) energy determination with chicks showed that metabolisable energy is a better measure of the feed stuff. 2.2.5 Mineral Requirement of Poultry The animal body contains a large number of mineral elements, although not all minerals are essential. An element is said to be essential when a ration low in that element is fed to animal and result in structural and functional injury. Underwood (1966) stated that minerals found in the animals body include major elements like calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), chloride (Cl), magnesium (Mg) and trace element including iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), cobalt (co), iodine (I), selenium (Se),. However, trace elements are difficult to establish (Maynard, 1951). The essential mineral exist in a variety of functional combination and in characteristic concentration which must be maintained within narrow limits, if the functional and structural integrity of the tissues is to be safe guarded and growth, health and productivity of the animal are to remain unpaired. According to Underwood (1966) each of the essential mineral serve a variety of functions which may be predominantly physical, chemical or biological in nature depending on the chemical form or combination of the mineral and on its location in the body tissue and fluids. In poultry, minerals are required for skeletal tissue development and maintenance, they contribute an appreciable percentage of the eggs and are involved in physiological functions. K, Mn, Zn, Si, Fe are likely to be adequate while the likely deficient ones are Ca, P, Na, Cl, Mn, I, Fe, Cu and Co, Ca, P, Mg, account for 25, 12 and 0.5 respectively of the bone. More can seen to be needed for egg shell thickness than for egg production. Dietary salt deficiency reduce egg production and it is claimed to predispose chicks to cannibalism. It is present in egg yolk as part of the protein molecule. Fe is found in the blood and in egg. In addition to their usefulness as structural constituents, minerals perform physiological functions in the fowl basically as they do in other types of animals. The principal quantitative functions of Ca and P are to provide the minerals for the skeletal tissue. Thus, they combine to give shape and rigidity to the bones, thereby protecting the soft tissues, providing attachment for the muscles, act as a mineral storage depot where they can be mobilized for dietary and metabolic emergencies. They also serve a variety of functions as solüble salt in blood and other body fluids. They are concerned in the maintenance of osmotic relation and acid base equilibrium and exerts (Maynard 1951). Underwood (1966) further stressed the importance of P as it participates in a multiplicity of metabolic relations involving energy transfer in addition to its function as a major constituent of bones and teeth. Ogunmodede and Sanne (1978) reported that the daily maintenance requirement for calcium for ten (10) wks old grower was in the range of 0.6 to 1.0gm. They also reported a requirement of 100ppm dietary copper as being the optimum for broiler chick starter and growers. The above recommendation showed a higher mineral requirement than those recommended by NRC (1971), ARC (1971). 2.2.6 Vitamin Requirement of Poultry According to the America institute of Nutrition (1945), vitamins are classified alphabetically, that A, B, C, D, E and K. Solubility in water or fat are also used in classifying them. Vitamins are not structural components of the body, but rather the most commonly function as co-enzymes, regulators of metabolism. The thirteen (13) vitamins required by poultry are partly the fat soluble ones A, D, E and K and the water soluble ones, thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinic acid, folic acid, biotin, panthotenic acid, pyridoxine, B12 and chlorine. Vitamin C is not required because it can be synthesized. Ogunmodede (1991) observed that 1001.u of vitamin A per 100gm diet was adequate for growth, but that minimum requirement was 901.u/100g of diet. He further added that under practical condition at least 1501.u of vitamin per 100gm diet should be fed in Nigeria. The NRC 1991) recommended 601.u vitamin per 100gm diet for normal growth. Common sources of vitamin in poultry feed is the vitamin/mineral premix. 2.3.0 False Yam 2.3.1 Nutritional properties and potentials of False Yam (Icacina trichantha) feed ingredients False yam, also known as Icacina trichantha, is a drought-resistant shrub native to tropical Africa. The plant produces large, starchy tubers that can be processed into meal for animal feed. The potential of false yam meal as a partial substitute for maize in broiler diets has been investigated due to its availability, nutritional composition, and lower cost compared to conventional feed ingredients (Akinola et al., 2020). False yam (Icacina trichantha) has been identified as a potential feed ingredient due to its rich nutritional composition and availability in many regions. Studies have shown that the tubers and seeds of false yam contain significant amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals, making them suitable for animal feed formulations (Okorie et al., 2021). The carbohydrate content in the tubers, which ranges from 60-80%, provides an excellent energy source for livestock, comparable to other conventional feed sources such as maize (Ogbuagu & Okechukwu, 2020). Additionally, the protein content, though moderate, is sufficient to support animal growth and metabolic activities when supplemented with other protein sources (Adeniji et al., 2022). The presence of essential minerals like calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium also enhances bone development and overall health in animals (Nworgu & Egbunike, 2019). Furthermore, false yam tubers have been reported to contain bioactive compounds that exhibit antimicrobial properties, potentially improving gut health and reducing disease susceptibility in livestock (Oladipo et al., 2021). However, the presence of anti-nutritional factors such as tannins and oxalates may limit its utilization, necessitating appropriate processing methods to enhance its safety and digestibility (Oluwaseun et al., 2021). Several studies have highlighted the potentials of false yam as a viable alternative feed ingredient, especially in regions where conventional feed resources are scarce or expensive. Research by Eze et al. (2022) demonstrated that incorporating processed false yam tubers into poultry diets improved feed efficiency and weight gain, suggesting its suitability for broiler production. Similarly, experiments conducted by Agbede and Ajibade (2020) on weaned pigs showed that animals fed with false yam-based diets exhibited comparable growth performance to those fed with traditional energy sources like cassava and maize. Additionally, in aquaculture, false yam meal has been tested as a partial substitute for fish meal, with promising results indicating improved protein utilization and reduced feed costs (Ekanem et al., 2023). False yam's potential extends beyond being an energy-rich feed ingredient to serving as a functional feed component with health-promoting properties. According to Obasi and Adebayo (2020), bioactive compounds such as flavonoids and alkaloids found in false yam possess antioxidant properties, which can help reduce oxidative stress in animals, ultimately improving meat quality and shelf life. Additionally, dietary fiber present in false yam contributes to better digestive health, reducing the incidence of gastrointestinal disorders in livestock (Olowookere et al., 2021). Studies conducted by Ibe et al. (2021) further confirmed that false yam inclusion in animal diets improves lipid metabolism, reducing cholesterol levels in poultry meat, which is beneficial for human consumption. 2.4.0 Serum Chemistry Serum chemistry provides insights into the physiological, metabolic, and health status of animals, including humans and livestock. It involves analyzing blood serum to measure specific biochemical parameters that reflect the functionality of organs, metabolic pathways, and homeostasis. In clinical studies, serum biochemical markers are widely used to monitor liver function, including enzymes like alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). Elevated levels of these enzymes are indicators of hepatic stress or damage, often linked to toxicological exposure or metabolic disorders. Studies by Oladele et al. (2019) and Chen et al. (2021) demonstrated that elevated AST and ALT levels in experimental models were reliable indicators of liver dysfunction, particularly in animals exposed to high-fat diets or mycotoxins. Protein metabolism is another critical domain in serum chemistry, with total protein (TP), albumin, and globulin levels being key markers. These parameters reflect the synthetic activity of the liver and immune system functionality. Investigations by Adekunle et al. (2021) and Singh et al. (2019) found that dietary interventions enriched with amino acids such as lysine and methionine positively impacted serum protein levels, promoting better growth and immune responses in poultry and livestock. Serum lipid profiles, including cholesterol and triglycerides, offer valuable information about cardiovascular and metabolic health. High cholesterol levels can signal metabolic syndrome or dietary imbalance. Recent findings by Zhang et al. (2021) and Wang et al. (2021) revealed that supplementing diets with polyunsaturated fatty acids significantly reduced serum triglycerides and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, improving overall lipid metabolism in experimental subjects. 2.4.1 Serum Chemistry in broiler chickens Serum chemistry in broiler chickens provides essential insights into their metabolic, physiological, and health status. Serum chemistry parameters such as glucose, protein, enzymes, electrolytes, and lipids are critical indicators of metabolic and physiological conditions. For example, glucose levels in broilers influence energy metabolism, reflecting carbohydrate metabolism and stress levels. Studies have shown that diet supplementation, such as methionine or choline, impacts serum glucose and overall energy balance, with some additives like choline improving serum glucose stability (Adejumo et al., 2021). Total protein (TP), albumin (ALB), and globulin levels serve as indicators of protein synthesis and immune competence. Variations in these markers may reflect dietary effects, disease states, or environmental stress. Research by Bawish et al. (2021) found significant increases in TP and ALB in broilers fed sodium butyrate, suggesting enhanced protein metabolism. Similarly, studies demonstrated that dietary methionine supplementation positively affects serum albumin levels, indicating improved protein utilization (Adejumo et al., 2021). Serum biochemical markers are essential for monitoring health and optimizing feed strategies. Elevated glucose levels may signal stress, while balanced electrolytes and robust antioxidant capacity indicate effective dietary management. Effective monitoring can reduce disease incidence and improve economic outcomes in broiler production. 2.4.2 Total protein Total protein is a critical component of serum chemistry in broiler chickens, as it provides insight into the overall health and metabolic state of the birds. Total protein includes albumin and globulins, which play essential roles in maintaining osmotic balance, immune functions, and nutrient transport. Serum total protein levels in broilers are influenced by various factors, including age, diet, health status, and management practices. For instance, studies have shown that serum protein concentrations tend to increase with age during the fattening period, reflecting enhanced metabolic activity and physiological development. In broilers, the mean total protein level typically ranges between 5.2 and 6.1 g/dL, with variations attributed to differences in diet formulations and environmental conditions (Veterinary World, 2021; Science Publishing Group, 2021). The diet significantly affects serum total protein levels in broilers. Adequate dietary crude protein, amino acids like lysine and methionine, and metabolizable energy are essential for optimal protein synthesis and metabolism. Variations in feed quality and nutrient composition, such as the inclusion of alternative feed ingredients like sorghum or locust bean fruit pulp, have been shown to influence serum biochemical parameters, including total protein, without adverse effects on bird health when properly balanced (IIARD Journals, 2021). Environmental and physiological stressors also impact serum protein levels in broilers. Heat stress, for instance, can alter protein metabolism and result in decreased serum protein concentrations. Supplementation with antioxidants, such as vitamin C, has been demonstrated to mitigate these effects and stabilize serum protein levels during challenging conditions (International Journal of Poultry Science, 2021). The influence of protein supplementation strategies has also been extensively studied. The inclusion of protein-rich additives and high-quality feed ensures adequate serum protein levels, enhancing overall productivity and growth rates in broilers. Specific feed formulations that include enzymes or probiotics have demonstrated improved digestibility and utilization of dietary protein, thereby boosting serum total protein concentrations (Korhogo Research, 2021). 2.4.3 Albumin Albumin is a significant serum protein that plays a crucial role in the physiology of broiler chickens. It is primarily synthesized in the liver and serves as a marker for liver function and overall protein metabolism. Albumin contributes significantly to maintaining oncotic pressure, which is vital for fluid balance between blood vessels and tissues. It also acts as a transport protein for hormones, fatty acids, and other compounds within the bloodstream, which underscores its importance in metabolic regulation (Abdelfattah et al., 2019; Kalantar-Zadeh et al., 2021). In broiler chickens, serum albumin levels are influenced by diet, environmental stress, and health status. Studies indicate that optimal dietary protein intake is directly linked to albumin synthesis, while deficiencies in essential amino acids can lead to hypoalbuminemia. This condition reflects poor nutritional status and can compromise growth and immune responses in broilers. Supplementation with balanced protein sources has been shown to enhance albumin levels and improve overall growth performance in broiler chickens (Adebiyi et al., 2021; Olukosi et al., 2019). Serum albumin levels also serve as indicators of hepatic function in broiler chickens. Liver damage or dysfunction, often caused by exposure to toxins, infections, or metabolic disorders, leads to reduced albumin synthesis. For instance, aflatoxin exposure in poultry diets has been associated with significant declines in serum albumin levels, underscoring the need for feed safety protocols (Okoye et al., 2021; Obasa et al., 2021). 2.4.4 Creatinine Creatinine, an essential indicator of kidney function, plays a significant role in evaluating the serum chemistry of broiler chickens. It is a byproduct of creatine phosphate metabolism in muscles and is excreted through the kidneys. In poultry, serum creatinine levels reflect kidney health, hydration status, and overall physiological well-being. The unique physiology of broiler chickens results in relatively low serum creatinine levels compared to mammals due to their limited creatine-dehydration mechanisms, which lead to higher circulating levels of creatine rather than creatinine. These differences underscore the importance of species-specific interpretations in biochemical studies (Hassan et al., 2020; Fouad et al., 2016). Dietary interventions significantly influence creatinine levels in broiler chickens. Studies have shown that dietary supplements such as probiotics, organic minerals, and enzymes reduce serum creatinine levels by improving renal function and lowering the production of nitrogenous waste. Probiotic microorganisms, for instance, can utilize creatinine as a nutrient source, thereby reducing its serum concentration. Such interventions highlight the renal-protective effects of functional feeds and their potential to optimize poultry health and productivity (Etuk et al., 2013; Esonu et al., 2012). The relationship between creatinine and other renal markers, such as urea and uric acid, provides a comprehensive picture of kidney function in broilers. Elevated creatinine levels, alongside urea, often suggest impaired renal filtration, while disproportionate levels can indicate specific pathological conditions. This interplay underscores the value of a multifaceted approach to serum chemistry analysis (Etuk et al., 2013). Comparative studies between broilers and indigenous chicken breeds reveal differences in serum creatinine concentrations, attributed to genetic and dietary variations. Broilers often show slightly higher creatinine levels due to their rapid growth and higher muscle metabolism, emphasizing the need for tailored nutritional and management practices for different poultry breeds (Isidahomen et al., 2011; Bello et al., 2020). 2.4.5 Urea Urea plays a significant role in the serum chemistry of broiler chickens, serving as a critical indicator of protein metabolism and renal function. Serum urea concentration reflects the balance between protein intake, protein catabolism, and the efficiency of nitrogen excretion. In broiler chickens, dietary formulations significantly influence serum urea levels. Studies have shown that broilers fed diets with varying protein contents exhibit corresponding changes in serum urea, highlighting its utility as a diagnostic marker for optimizing feed formulations (Bamgbose et al., 2003; Etuk et al., 2013). High-protein diets tend to increase serum urea as excess nitrogen is deaminated and converted to urea for excretion, whereas low-protein diets result in reduced urea levels, reflecting efficient nitrogen retention for growth. Serum urea is also a marker for evaluating feed quality and nutrient absorption. Diets containing suboptimal or imbalanced protein sources can lead to inefficient nitrogen utilization, resulting in elevated serum urea levels. Such outcomes underscore the importance of formulating diets with adequate protein quality and amino acid balance (Esonu et al., 2012). Pathological conditions in broilers, such as nephritis or hepatic dysfunction, are often accompanied by abnormal serum urea concentrations. These deviations provide diagnostic insights into systemic health and the impacts of diseases on renal and hepatic systems (Alewi et al., 2012; Amos, 2006). For example, nephropathy induced by toxins or infections can lead to hyperuremia, reflecting impaired renal clearance. CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Experimental Location and Climate The experiment was conducted at the poultry unit of the teaching and research farm, Ambrose Ali University, Ekpoma, for a period of eight (8) weeks. The farm was located between the latitude 6.44oN and longitude 6.8oE in Esan West Local Government Area, Ekpoma, Edo state, Nigeria. Ekpoma was within the South-South Geo-political Zone of Nigeria and experienced a tropical climate with a mean annual rainfall of about 82%. The vegetation represented an interface between the tropical rainforest and the derived savanna. 3.2 Source of Experimental Raw Materials/Ingredients Fresh tubers of False yam (Icacina trichantha) were harvested within the university community environment, while other feed ingredients were purchased from a reputable store in Benin city. 3.3 Processing of Fresh Tubers of False Yam Fresh tubers of false yam were washed, peeled, chopped into smaller pieces or chips, and sun-dried for about 6-7 days at atmospheric temperature. The dried chips of the tubers were milled into a fine powder that passed through a 2mm mesh sieve and was kept in tight plastic containers. The fine powder was designated as sun-dried false yam meal (SFYM). 3.4 Management of Experimental Birds A total of 150 day-old broiler chicks were purchased from a reputable bird dealer for this experiment. On arrival, the birds were placed in a brooding house where they were fed a commercial starter diet for a one-week acclimatization period. The birds were mass-brooded for four weeks in a well-ventilated poultry house in deep litter compartments. After the one-week pre-experiment feeding, 30 chicks were randomly picked, weighed, and distributed into five dietary treatments (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5), with 3 replicates of 10 chicks each in a completely randomized design (CRD). Routine medication and vaccination were carried out throughout the duration of the feeding trial. 3.5 Experimental Diets Five experimental (starter and finisher) diets were formulated. Diet 1 served as the control, containing 100% maize and 0% SFYM, while diets 2, 3, 4, and 5 used SFYM to substitute maize at 4, 8, 12, and 16% inclusion levels. All the diets were formulated to be iso-nitrogenous (21% and 19%) and iso-caloric (2800 and 2800 kcal/kg ME), according to NRC (1994), as reflected in Tables 1 and 2. Table 3.1: Percentage Composition of Experimental Starter Diets Inclusion levels of SFYM (%) Ingredients (%- Treatments (T) 1 2 3 4 5 Maize - Sun Dried False Yam Meal- Soya bean meal- Fish meal- Palm kernel cake- Wheat offal- Bone meal - Limestone- Premix - Lysine - Methionine - Salt - Total - Crude Protein % - M.E (KC al/kg- Table 3.2: Percentage Composition of Experimental Finisher Diets Inclusion levels of SFYM (%) Ingredients (%) - Treatments (T) 1 2 3 4 5 Maize - Sun Dried False Yam Meal- Soya bean meal- Fish meal- Palm kernel cake- Wheat offal- Bone meal - Limestone- Premix - Lysine - Methionine - Salt - Total - Crude Protein % - M.E (KC al/kg- 3.6 Feeding The birds were fed a commercial diet for a one-week acclimatization period. After that, they were fed the formulated starter and finisher diets for 3 and 4 weeks, respectively. 3.7. Collection of Samples At the end of the feeding trial, after eight (8) weeks, the birds were starved overnight, and two birds from each replicate treatment were picked. Each bird was decapitated and bled. The blood samples were collected from the same birds into heparinized tubes for serum chemistry determination. Serum metabolites such as total protein, albumin, creatinine, and urea were determined by the method of Hyduke (1975), while globulin was estimated by subtracting the albumin value from the serum total protein value (Dacie and Lewis, 1991). 3.8. Statistical Analysis Data generated were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and treatment means were compared using Duncan’s multiple range test using the SAS (1999) package CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Results Table 4.1 Serum Chemistry of Broiler Chicken Fed Varying Levels of Sundried False Yam Meal Inclusion levels of SFYM (%) - Treatment (T) Indices 1 2 3 4 5 SEM± Total protein (g/dl) 9.04a 8.98 a 8.15 b 7.98 bc 7.35c 0.13 Albumin(g/dl) 5.27 b 5.98 a 4.48 c 4.48 c 3.98c 0.12 Globulin(g/dl) 3.77 3.00 3.68 3.50 3.38 0.13 Urea(kg/dl) 3.67 c 3.67 c 4.00 bc 4.83 ab 5.67a 0.16 Creatinine (kg/dl) 0.32b 0.37 b 0.38 b 0.47 a 0.50a 0.01 Glucose (g/dl) 227.67 a 168.67 bc 179.00 b 145.00bc 127.67 c 7.48 ALP(µ/l) 945.00 a 875.00 b 465.00 c 383.00d 365.00 d 4.48 ALT(µ/l) 5.00 4.67 4.33 - AST(µ/l) 134.33 a 134.67 a 134.00 ab 133.00bc 132.67 c 0.21 abcd: means in the same row with varying superscripts differ significantly (p<0.05) SFYM: Sundried false yam meal SEM± = Result of Serum Chemistry of Broiler Chicken Fed Varying Levels of Sundried False Yam. The blood biochemical profile reflect the physiological status of an animal resulting from nutrition, pathogenic agents, actions, and welfare level of breeding technology. Result of Serum Chemistry of Broiler Chicken Fed Varying Levels of Sundried False Yam Icacina trichantha on Serum Chemistry indices of broiler chicken as influenced by the Dietary Treatment (Table 4:1) revealed that Total protein, Albumin, Globulin, Urea, Creatinine, Glucose, ALP, ALT, and AST were significantly (p<0.05) influenced by the sundried false yam meal treatments. Total protein was significantly (p<0.05) highest in T1 (9.04) in birds administered 0% of SFYM, followed T2 (8.98), T3 (8.15), T4 (7.98) while the least value was recorded in T5 (7.35) with 16% of SFYM. Albumin was significantly (p<0.05) highest in T2 (5.98) in the birds administered 4% of SFYM, followed by T1 (5.27), T3 (4.48) and T4 (4.48) with similar values, while the least value was recorded in T5 (3.98) administered 16% of SFYM. Globulin was significantly (p<0.05) highest in T1 (3.77) with 0% SFYM followed by T3 (3.68), T4 (3.50), T5 (3.38) while the least were recorded in T2 (3.00) administered 4% of SFYM. Urea was significantly (p<0.05) highest in T5 (5.67) in birds administered 16% of SFYM followed by T4 (4.83), T3 (4.00) with the least recorded value in T2 (3.67) and T1 (3.67) with same values. Creatinine was significantly (p<0.05) highest in T5 (0.50) in birds administered 16% of SFYM, followed by T4 (0.47), T3 (0.38), T2 (0.37) while the least value was recorded in T1 (0.32) with 0% of SFYM .Glucose was significantly (p<0.05) highest in T1 (227.67) in birds administered 0% of SFYM followed by T3 (179.00), T2 (168.67), T4 (145.00), while the least value was recorded in T5 (127.67) in birds administered 16% SFYM. ALP was significantly (p<0.05) highest in T1 (945.00) in birds administered 0% of SFYM, followed by T2 (875.00), T3 (465.00), T4 (383.00) while T5 (365.00) had the least recorded value. ALT was significantly (p<0.05) highest in T1 (5.00) in birds administered 0% of SFYM followed by T5 (4.67) and T2 (4.67) with same value while the least were recorded in T4(4.33) and T3 (4.33) with same values. AST was significantly p(0<0.5) highest in T2 (134.67) in birds administered 4% of SFYM followed by T1 (134.33), T3 (134.00) T4 (133.00) while the least value was recorded in T5 (132.67) in birds administered 16% of SFYM. 4.2 Discussion on Serum Chemistry of Broiler Chicken Fed Varying Levels of Sundried False Yam The result of this study showed that varying levels of sundried false yam meal (SFYM) significantly influenced several biochemical parameters in broiler chickens, particularly serum albumin, creatinine, glucose, AST, and ALP levels, while serum globulin and ALT showed no significant differences across treatments. These findings agree with the studies of several authors, highlighting the importance of serum chemistry indices as valuable tools for monitoring the nutritional status and health of poultry. Total Protein and Serum Albumin, the highest total protein value was observed in the birds administered 0% SFYM, with values ranging from 7.35 to 9.04 g/dl. This result aligns with findings from earlier studies, which reported that protein levels in serum are directly influenced by the quality of protein in the diet (Adedokun et al., 2014; Yusuf et al., 2018). For instance, Okonkwo et al. (2017) found that high protein diets resulted in increased serum total protein levels in broilers. Similarly, Akinmoladun et al. (2015) demonstrated that serum albumin levels are highly sensitive to protein intake and reflect the nutritional status of poultry. Moreover, Adeyemi and Ojo (2020) showed that serum albumin synthesis is related to the availability of protein and anti-nutritional factors in the diet, corroborating the result of this study. However, the lack of significant difference in globulin levels, as observed in this study, contradicts some findings, Galli et al. (2019) and Lunde et al. (2016), who noted significant changes in both albumin and globulin with dietary variations. The finding that globulin remained unaffected by SFYM treatment could be attributed to the presence of anti-nutritional factors in the yam meal, which may have influenced albumin synthesis but not globulin levels. For the renal function test biochemical markers like the creatinine levels observed in this study (0.32-0.50 mg/dl) fell within the normal range of 0.20-0.5 mg/dl, indicating that SFYM did not have a detrimental effect on kidney function. These results support findings by Olamide et al. (2015) and Adegboyega et al. (2016), who found that normal creatinine levels indicate that there is no kidney damage due to dietary interventions. On the other hand, Ibrahim et al. (2018) suggested that high-protein diets can lead to increased creatinine levels, possibly indicating kidney stress. However, the normal creatinine values in this study contradict that perspective, suggesting that SFYM is safe for the kidneys in broiler chickens, warranting the safety of false yam incorporation in the broiler feed. Observed significant in glucose values, with the highest level of (227.67 mg/dl) recorded in the birds administered SFYM. This was consistent with the study by Mulugeta et al. (2016), who found that glucose levels in poultry can vary with dietary protein and carbohydrate content. Similarly, Adebiyi et al. (2017) noted that glucose levels reflect the energy status and metabolic processes in poultry, which are influenced by dietary composition. However, some studies, such as those of Daramola et al. (2019), have reported no significant change in glucose levels despite varying dietary treatments. These contrasting results suggest that dietary interventions may lead to different metabolic responses based on the specific nutrients provided. The liver enzyme Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) and Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST), the ALP values in this study - µ/l) were significantly affected by the SFYM treatment, while AST values - µ/l) showed no significant difference. This suggests that SFYM treatment had some effect on the bone and liver functions, but it did not affect liver function as assessed by AST. These findings are in agreement with studies by Oyeyemi et al. (2017) and Mibeko et al. (2020), who found that ALP is often used as an indicator of bone and liver health in poultry. Likewise, Shukla et al. (2019) demonstrated that AST is a reliable marker for liver function, and its levels remained stable in healthy birds. Usman et al. (2018) and Sulaimon et al. (2015), reported that both ALP and AST are significantly influenced by dietary treatments, suggesting that dietary factors can affect liver enzymes in varying degrees. For Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT), result showed no significant difference across the treatments, which implies that SFYM did not significantly influence liver damage in broiler chickens. This finding agrees with the studies of Olaitan et al. (2016) and Okoye et al. (2019), who reported that dietary variations in protein and other nutrients did not always affect ALT levels in poultry. However, studies by Ijaiya et al. (2017) and Awotoye et al. (2019) found that high-protein diets could lead to increased ALT values, indicating potential liver damage. The absence of significant changes in ALT in this study supports the conclusion that SFYM is safe and does not pose a risk to liver function. CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations 5.1 Conclusion The findings of this study indicate that SFYM can positively influence the protein and health status of broiler chickens, particularly by enhancing serum albumin and glucose levels, without causing detrimental effects on kidney or liver function. These results support the idea that serum biochemical indices are valuable tools for assessing the nutritional and health status of poultry, and they align with various studies that have highlighted the importance of these indices in poultry nutrition research. However, the variations observed in different studies underline the need for further research to better understand the specific effects of SFYM and other plant-based meals on broiler chickens. 5.2 Recommendations 1. Optimization of SFYM in Poultry Diets: Given its positive effects on serum albumin and glucose levels, further research should focus on optimizing the levels of SFYM in poultry diets to maximize its nutritional benefits while ensuring the birds' health remains unaffected by anti-nutritional factors. 2. Regular Monitoring of Serum Biochemical Indices: To ensure the health and well-being of broiler chickens, regular monitoring of serum biochemical indices such as albumin, glucose, and creatinine should be incorporated in poultry farming practices as part of a broader health management strategy. 3. Investigation of Long-term Effects: While the current study provides valuable insights into short-term effects, further studies are recommended to assess the long-term impact of SFYM on poultry growth, productivity, and overall health, particularly in relation to anti-nutritional factors. 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