Enoghase Itua Erasmus

JOB INSECURITY AND EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT BY ------------- DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES AMBROSE ALLI UNIVERSITY EKPOMA EDO STATE NIGERIA APRIL, 2024 i CONTENTS TITLE PAGE i CERTIFICATION iii DEDICATION iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v TABLE OF CONTENTS vii ABSTRACT viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem 6 1.3 Research Questions 9 1.4 Objectives of the Study 9 1.5 Research Hypotheses 9 1.6 Significance of the Study 10 1.7 Scope of the Study 12 1.8 Limitations of the Study 12 1.9 Organization of the Study 13 1.10 Definition of Terms 14 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Conceptual Review 16 2.1.1 Job Insecurity 16 ii 2.1.2 Job satisfaction 19 2.1.3 Workplace Bullying 21 2.1.4 Turnover intention 23 2.1.5 Employee Engagement 26 2.1.6 Employee Dedication 28 2.1.7 Employee Vigour 31 2.1.8 Employee Absorption 36 2.1.9 Job insecurity and Employee Engagement 39 2.2 Theoretical Framework 42 2.3 Empirical Review 44 2.4 Summary of Related Literature 46 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design 48 3.2 Area of Study 48 3.5 Sources of Data 48 3.3 Population of the Study 48 3.4 Sample size and Sample Techniques 49 3.6 Validity and Reliability of Instrument 49 3.7 Methods of Data Collection and Questionnaire Distribution 50 3.8 Method of Data Analysis 51 iii CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 4.1 Data Presentation and Analysis 52 4.2 Test of Hypotheses 64 4.3 Discussion of Findings 66 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Summary 69 5.2 Conclusion 70 5.3 Recommendations 70 References 72 Appendix 82 iv ABSTRACT The study examined job insecurity and employee engagement. In order to effectively carry out this work, the survey research design was adopted. Questionnaire was designed and used to collect relevant data from frontline management staff and other workers from two (2) Banks in Ekpoma, Edo State. A total number of 58 questionnaire distributed and 50 questionnaire were returned representing 86% return rate. The data was analyzed using simple percentage and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Co-efficient analysis. The findings from the study showed that: there is a significant positive relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication; there is a significant positive relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigour and there is a significant positive relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption. The study concluded that job insecurity significantly influence employee engagement of Banks in Ekpoma. It was therefore recommended among others that regular evaluation of employee satisfaction and dedication levels should be conducted to identify any shifts in trends or emerging factors that may impact the relationship between job satisfaction and dedication, Banks in Ekpoma should implement robust anti-bullying policies and procedures aimed at preventing instances of workplace bullying and Banks in Ekpoma should implement targeted retention strategies aimed at reducing turnover intention among employees. v CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study In today's rapidly changing work environment, job insecurity has become a prevalent concern for many employees across various industries. Job insecurity refers to the perceived or actual threat of losing one's job, which can stem from factors such as organizational restructuring, economic downturns, or advancements in technology that may render certain roles obsolete. This uncertainty about the continuity of employment can significantly impact employees' well-being and work-related attitudes, including their level of engagement within the organization (Chinomona & Sandada, 2014). Employee engagement, on the other hand, is a crucial factor for organizational success and is often defined as the extent to which employees feel dedicated to their work and are willing to exert extra effort to contribute to the organization's goals. Engaged employees are more likely to demonstrate higher levels of productivity, innovation, and commitment, which can ultimately drive organizational performance. Understanding the relationship between job insecurity and employee engagement is essential for organizations aiming to foster a positive work environment and maintain a motivated workforce. Employees are an extremely valuable business asset, and employee engagement is undeniably a dominant source of competitive advantage at all organisational levels (Cheng & Chan, 2018). Engaged employees also experience a heightened sense of meaningfulness in their vi work, associated with psychological safety and psychological availability (Werner, 2016). Engagement further enables employees to become absorbed in their work, to become dedicated to the organization and its outcomes, while exhibiting vigour in their interactions and task performance. Important organizational outcomes are, therefore, derived from engaged employees, giving organizations a much-desired competitive advantage (Cheng & Chan, 2018). National and global economic irregularities have led to the reduction in demand for goods and services of an organization hence; they are forced to adopt different strategies such as budget cut, outsourcing, restructuring, layoffs, right sizing and reorganizations as panacea for such economic and technological changes. Consequently, there appears to be rapid changes which were triggered by world financial crisis, intensified global competition. These changes bring imbalance into the labour market which becomes the cause of creating variability in retention and employment security. Regrettably, the imbalance in the labour market has not only weakened the employer-employee relationship but has given birth to contractual and outsourced employees as a surviving strategy (Kimura, 2011). Furthermore, these alternatives create a sense of insecurity in jobs, create negative set of perception about organizations and decrease the sense of stability culminating into job uncertainties (Sverke, 2016). Shoss, (2017) observed that to survive in a global market characterized by high level of competition, over the past few decades, organizational restructuring via downsizing has become a popular norm or solution. It is however considered that job insecurity accounts for change in performance either positively or negatively. More so, job performance should be perceived as a behavioural reaction to job insecurity. It can appear vii as a form of behavioural withdrawal (reduced job performance). This study considered that job insecurity may be generated from the viewpoint of downsizing which is triggered by either economic or technological changes and thereby creates a sense of uncertainty for employees who fear losing their job. Hence, it may lead to a strong negative impact on their behaviours, emotions, attitudes, psyche which may affect their engagement. As a consequence of the aforementioned changes, apprehension about job insecurity has become a critical issue in the present-day work life which has consequently increased the trend of job insecurity. Job insecurity can elicit multiple responses in employees, such as physical health, well-being, attitudes, intentions, and behaviours (Shoss, 2017) all of which have a direct impact on employee engagement and performance. In today's environment of economic and technological changes, job insecurity is recognized as a chronic condition affecting the general workforce (Ito & Brotheridge, 2017). However, employees that are unsure of what their jobs are or how to discharge their responsibility satisfactorily are more prone to increase in anxiety resulting in a perceived lack of control over the future. The employee experience of job insecurity may be defined as a combination of a perceived threat regarding their job, and the sense of powerlessness to do anything about this very threat (Storseth, 2016). Job security, according to Anitha (2014), describes the workers’ experience and the degree to which they experience some level of assurance and trust in their continuity with the organization. This, according to Anitha (2014) and supported by Rich, Schaufeli, & Bakker (2010), impacts on their behaviour and disposition toward the organization. A study by Deci and Ryan (cited in Anitha, 2014) highlighted that a supportive approach from management, viii where care and concern is shown for employees, encourages a positive work experience and the assurance of role continuity which enriches workers’ functionality (Steers, 2017). Employees with a positive experience at work benefit from being able to focus on their work and interpersonal development; as such, this factor was deemed highly significant in influencing employee engagement outcomes (Anitha, 2014). According to Burke & Cooper (2015) the most preferred option for increasing profit and reducing cost is to cut down the number of employees under contract status, early departure, layoffs, downsizing and outsourcing. Job insecurity leads to uncertainty and unpredictability about employment, this compels employees to be less devoted to an organization where they have perceived job insecurity. This uncertainty creates stress; similarly, it impacts on health, attitude and behaviour (Sverke, De Witte, Näswall, & Hellgren, 2016) which eventually affect the employee engagement and performance. According to Fairlie, (2014) related research point to the significance of job security and its significance in advancing related outcomes of engagement. This follows the observation of Sethibe and Steyn (2018) that the perceptions held with regard to policies, work arrangement and other activities of the organization significantly impact on the effectiveness of employees and their desire to continue or stay with the organization. The lack of content addressing the relationship between job security and employee engagement in the Nigerian healthcare sector poses a major gap in employee engagement research. Knowledge of such would contribute toward advancing a more consistent position on the significance of job security and its actual role in stimulating preferred behavioural outcomes. ix The COVID-19 outbreak had a significant impact on society and businesses at a globally. Particularly for organisations, the pandemic caused disruptions in the activities and operations of almost every business and/or organisation (McKibbin & Fernando, 2020), the consequences of which is manifesting in job loss. However, employees around the world are experiencing growing uncertainty about their future employment due to the pandemic situation. It is generally believed that employment security is an important aspect of employees’ quality of life (Bosman, Buitendach & Rothmann 2015), thus, the threat of job insecurity could possibly result in the frustration, depression and loss of focus that could result in inefficiency. Numerous studies have highlighted the detrimental effects of job insecurity on employee engagement. When employees perceive their jobs to be insecure, they experience heightened levels of stress and anxiety about their future within the organization. This sense of uncertainty can lead to decreased job satisfaction and a diminished sense of commitment to the organization's goals. According to a study by Sverke, Witte, Näswall, & Hellgren (2020), job insecurity was found to be negatively associated with employee engagement, with higher levels of job insecurity corresponding to lower levels of engagement. Similarly, research by De Witte (2019) demonstrated that employees experiencing high levels of job insecurity were less likely to feel emotionally connected to their work and were more prone to disengagement. Employees are an extremely valuable business asset, and employee engagement is undeniably a dominant source of competitive advantage at all organisational levels. Engaged employees also experience a heightened sense of meaningfulness in their work, associated with psychological safety and psychological availability (Werner, 2011). Engagement further x enables employees to become absorbed in their work, to become dedicated to the organisation and its outcomes, while exhibiting vigour in their interactions and task performance (Saks, 2016). Important organisational outcomes are, therefore, derived from engaged employees, giving organisations a much-desired competitive advantage. 1.2 Statement of the Problem In contemporary work environments, the interplay between job insecurity and employee engagement has garnered increased attention due to its profound implications for organizational effectiveness and employee well-being. Job insecurity, defined as the perceived or actual threat of job loss, has been recognized as a pervasive concern affecting the mindset and behavior of employees in various industries. This study aims to investigate the relationship between job insecurity and employee engagement, specifically focusing on the dimensions of dedication, vigor, and absorption, within the context of deposit money banks in Edo State, Nigeria. The banking sector in Edo State, much like its counterparts globally, is undergoing dynamic changes influenced by economic fluctuations, technological advancements, and evolving market demands. These changes often introduce an element of uncertainty regarding job security for employees in deposit money banks. The nature of the banking industry, with its susceptibility to economic shifts and technological disruptions, makes understanding the impact of job insecurity on employee engagement crucial for both employees and organizational leaders (Silla, De Cuyper, Gracia, Peiró & De Witte, 2021). xi Employee engagement, encompassing dedication, vigor, and absorption, plays a pivotal role in organizational success. Dedication refers to the sense of significance, enthusiasm, and inspiration employees feel toward their work, while vigor pertains to the energy and resilience they bring to their tasks. Absorption, on the other hand, reflects the state of being fully engrossed and immersed in one's work. These dimensions collectively contribute to a productive and positive work environment (Vander, De Cuyper, Baillien, Niesen & De Witte, 2018). Despite the growing body of literature on job insecurity and employee engagement, there exists a notable gap, particularly in the exploration of how job insecurity influences the specific dimensions of dedication, vigor, and absorption, especially within the unique context of deposit money banks in Edo State. While some studies have examined the broader aspects of employee engagement, there is a dearth of research that comprehensively examines how job insecurity affects the intricate facets of dedication, vigor, and absorption in this specific industry and regional setting. The existing literature offers insights into the negative consequences of job insecurity on employee engagement. Research by Sverke et al. (2020) underscores the adverse effects of job insecurity on employee dedication, showing that heightened job insecurity is associated with decreased levels of commitment and enthusiasm towards work. Similarly, studies by De Witte (2019) have highlighted the negative impact of job insecurity on employees' vigor and absorption, leading to decreased energy and immersion in their tasks. xii In the Nigerian context, the banking sector has faced unique challenges, ranging from economic uncertainties to regulatory changes. The specific implications of job insecurity on employee dedication, vigor, and absorption within the deposit money banks in Edo State have not been extensively explored. This gap in the literature necessitates a focused investigation to understand the nuanced dynamics and to provide relevant insights for both academic and practical purposes. Furthermore, organizational factors, such as leadership support, communication transparency, and the fairness of procedures, are recognized as crucial influencers in shaping the impact of job insecurity on employee engagement (Vander Elst et al., 2018). However, the applicability of these findings to the banking sector in Edo State remains unclear and warrants empirical investigation. This study seeks to address these gaps by conducting an in-depth analysis of the relationship between job insecurity and the dimensions of dedication, vigor, and absorption among employees using deposit money banks in Edo State as a case study. The findings from this research aim to contribute valuable insights that can inform organizational strategies, human resource practices, and interventions tailored to enhance employee well-being and foster a positive work environment within the local banking industry. 1.3 Research Questions This study was guided with the following research questions: i. What is the relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication? xiii ii. What is the relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigour? iii. What is the relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption? 1.4 Objectives of the Study The broad objective of this study is to examine the relationship between job insecurity and employee engagement. The specific objectives are to: i Examine the relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication ii ii. Examine the relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigour iii iii. Examine the relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption 1.5 Research Hypotheses The following research hypotheses were formulated by the researcher: 1. Họ: There is no significant positive relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication H1: There is a significant positive relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication 2. H0: There is no significant positive relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigour H1: There is a significant positive relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigour 3. Ho: There is no significant positive relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption xiv H1: There is a significant positive relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption 1.6 Significance of the Study The significance of the study on job insecurity and employee engagement extends to various stakeholders, encompassing employees, the banking sector, human resources managers, policymakers, students, government, and future researchers. Understanding the implications of job insecurity on employee engagement and the subsequent findings from this study holds substantial importance for the following: The study's findings can contribute to the well-being of employees by shedding light on the specific challenges related to job insecurity and its impact on dedication, vigor, and absorption. This knowledge can empower employees to develop coping strategies and resilience in the face of job uncertainty. Employees can also use the insights to make informed decisions about career planning and development. Understanding how job insecurity influences engagement can guide individuals in navigating their professional paths within the banking sector. The banking sector stands to benefit from improved workforce productivity. Insights from the study can guide organizational strategies to minimize the negative effects of job insecurity, fostering a more engaged and motivated workforce. By understanding the factors influencing employee engagement, banks can implement targeted interventions to retain top xv talent. This is crucial in a competitive industry where skilled professionals are essential for success. Human resources managers can use the findings to develop strategic interventions and policies aimed at addressing job insecurity. This could involve implementing supportive programs, communication strategies, or training initiatives to bolster employee engagement. Armed with insights into the relationship between job insecurity and engagement, HR managers can design effective retention strategies tailored to the unique challenges faced by employees in deposit money banks. Policymakers in the financial sector can benefit from a nuanced understanding of the challenges posed by job insecurity. This knowledge can inform the development of policies that promote a stable and supportive work environment within the banking industry. Students pursuing studies in Business Administration or related fields can benefit from the study's insights. It provides a practical understanding of the real-world dynamics of job insecurity and employee engagement, enriching their academic knowledge. A thriving banking sector contributes significantly to economic stability. The government can use the study's findings to inform policies that support the banking industry's growth, ensuring a stable and engaged workforce that contributes positively to the economy. Insights into the job insecurity-employee engagement dynamic can aid in the formulation of labor market policies that promote fair employment practices and employee well-being. xvi The study establishes a foundation for future researchers to investigate deeper into specific aspects of job insecurity and employee engagement. It provides a framework for more targeted inquiries, allowing for a continuous advancement of knowledge in this field. 1.7 Scope of the Study This research work focuses on job insecurity and employee engagement as case study of deposit money banks in Edo State. The study sought to investigate the employee engagement variable such dedication, vigiour and absorption, hence United Bank for Africa (U.B.A) and Fidelity Bank PLC Ekpoma, Edo State was used as a case study. 1.8 Limitations of the Study The following limitations were encountered by the researcher during this research work: Limited Time: The time available for the collection of data for this study from a banks in Ekpoma viz United Bank for Africa (U.B.A) and Fidelity was not enough due to the combination of the research work with other Academic activities. Finance: Finance was another difficult aspect of the work as money was needed to source for materials/data and to and from the case study Bureaueracy: Bureaucracy which is a vital part of getting information also posed to be a major problem as managers and staff of United Bank for Africa (U.B.A) and Fidelity Bank was reluctant to give vital information. 1.9 Organization of the Study xvii The study is structured into 5 chapters and in each chapter we discuss separate issues as follows: Chapter 1: The introduction of work it deals with background information of the study, statement of problems, research questions, Objectives of the study, Research Hypotheses, significant of the study, scope of the study, limitations of the study, organization of the study definition of terms. Chapter 2: This will deal with literature review. Which deals with the introduction, conceptual framework, theoretical framework and empirical review. Chapter 3: This will deal with research methodology and it will cover the following areas: Research Design, Sampling Technique, Validation of the Study, Research Instrument, Method of Data Collection and Method of Data Analysis. Chapter 4: This will deal with data presentation and it will cover the following areas: Data Presentation and analysis of results, testing of hypotheses, and discussion of findings. Chapter 5: Finally this chapter will cover the following areas: summary of findings, conclusion and recommendations. 1.10 Definition of Terms It is important to provide operational definitions of certain basic concept that will be relevant to this study. xviii Job insecurity: Job insecurity refers to the perceived or actual threat of losing one's job or the uncertainty about the continuity of employment. Job security: Job security describes the workers’ experience and the degree to which they experience some level of assurance and trust in their continuity with the organization. Employee: It is the different classes of people employed by an organization for carrying out a corporate assignment toward achieving corporate goals. Employee Engagement: Engagement is an expression and behaviour of a person who fully engages in work and in the team, as a manifestation of fulfilling his role in work, which is characterized by a personal presence physically, cognitively and emotionally. Dedication: This describes the level of enthusiasm expressed by employees in the engagement of their roles and responsibilities. Vigour: This refers to the workers’ physical exertion of energy, vitality and focus on their roles in the organization. Engaged workers are full with energy (vigour), strongly involved in their work (dedication), and often fully concentrated and happily engrossed in their work activities. Absorption: This measure of employees’ engagement refers to the extent to which the worker is engrossed in their work or roles. Absorption describes a condition in which workers spend considerable time and energy in their roles or functions xix CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter presents the theoretical background for this study by reviewing relevant literature. The first section deals with conceptual review, this is followed by theoretical framework, empirical review and summary of the study. This is discussed under the following headings: 2.1 Conceptual Review 2.1.1 Job Insecurity One critical aspect that significantly impacts performance is job insecurity. Job insecurity can be described in various ways, encompassing economic, psychological, and sociological dimensions. Job insecurity in its economic dimension is the perceived threat of job loss due to factors such as economic downturns, outsourcing, or automation. As articulated by Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt (2021), economic job insecurity is associated with the fear of unemployment resulting from external factors beyond individual control. From a psychological perspective, job insecurity relates to an individual's emotional and mental state in response to the uncertainty surrounding their employment. According to De Witte (2022), the psychological dimension involves feelings of anxiety, stress, and fear about the future stability of one's job. Job insecurity can also be viewed through a sociological lens, emphasizing its broader societal impact. As highlighted by Standing (2023), sociological job insecurity refers to the destabilizing effect on communities when large numbers of individuals face uncertain employment prospects, leading to social unrest and economic disparities. xx In the era of globalization, job insecurity has taken on new dimensions. As emphasized by Handel (2023), globalization has intensified competition and created a sense of vulnerability among workers, as jobs can be easily moved across borders, contributing to increased job insecurity. With the rapid advancement of technology, automation has become a significant contributor to job insecurity. Brynjolfsson and McAfee (2022) argue that automation, especially in industries such as manufacturing and service, has led to concerns about job displacement and the need for reskilling. The rise of the gig economy has introduced a new facet to job insecurity. Standing (2022) notes that precarious employment in gig-based jobs, characterized by temporary and irregular work arrangements, has become a source of heightened job insecurity for many individuals. Job insecurity has profound implications for mental health. Research by Milner et al. (2021) underscores the link between job insecurity and mental health issues, emphasizing the need for organizations to address the psychological well-being of employees in the face of uncertainty. Gender plays a role in the experience of job insecurity. Smith and Ollier-Malaterre (2023) argue that women, in particular, face unique challenges related to job insecurity, often encountering gender-based discrimination and precarious employment. On the other hand, job security has been defined and presented in many different ways by researchers and practitioners. This term is understood as the state of knowing that one’s job is secure and that one is unlikely to be dismissed or made redundant. Adebayo and Lucky (2012) refer to job security as the assurance of long-term placement in the organization offered to the worker by the organization. Arabi (2000) defined job security as the probability that an individual will keep their job; a job with a high level of security is such that a person with the xxi job would have a little chance of losing it. Barling and Kelloway (2016) posit that many factors threaten job security: globalization, outsourcing, downsizing, recession, and new technology, to name a few. Subsequently, Witte (2019) narrates what typifies this subjective conceptualization of job insecurity is that it concerns insecurity about the future: insecure employees are uncertain about whether they will retain or lose their current job. They are groping in the dark as far as their future within the organization or company is concerned. De Witte and Näswall (2003) posit that employees who feel uncertain cannot adequately prepare themselves for the future, since it is unclear to them whether actions should be undertaken or not. Generally, certain types of jobs and industry jobs have been perceived to have high job security. For instance, government jobs, educational jobs, healthcare jobs and law enforcement jobs are deemed to be very secure while on the other hand, jobs in the private sector are widely perceived to offer lower job security, which may also be according to industry, location, occupation and other factors (Adebayo & Lucky, 2012). Weldegebriel, Ejigu, Weldegebreal and Woldie (2016) argue that the concept of job security can either be implied based on workers’ perceptions of organizational stability and wellbeing or outrightly expressed in the organization’s practices and policies (Diana, Tay & Oishi, 2020). Job insecurity can be a direct result of organizational restructuring and downsizing. As highlighted by Rousseau (2022), employees facing the prospect of layoffs due to cost-cutting measures experience heightened job insecurity, impacting their commitment and performance. The role of government policies in influencing job insecurity is crucial. Policies related to labor xxii markets, social protection, and unemployment benefits can either mitigate or exacerbate job insecurity (Fevre, O'Reilly, & Billett, 2022), highlighting the importance of a supportive regulatory framework. Educational background can influence the degree of job insecurity individuals experience. According to Schofield and Lain (2023), individuals with lower educational attainment may face higher levels of job insecurity, as they may be perceived as more dispensable in a competitive job market. Demographic factors, such as age and tenure, contribute to the experience of job insecurity. The aging workforce may perceive higher levels of job insecurity due to concerns about adaptability and potential age-related biases (Wang, Zhan, Liu, Shultz & Hirschi, 2022). The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly amplified job insecurity globally. As discussed by Kalleberg (2021), the pandemic-induced economic downturn, coupled with uncertainties surrounding the future of work, has heightened concerns about job stability. Job insecurity can shape individuals' attitudes toward career development. According to Peeters, Schreurs, Van Emmerik & Notelaers, (2023), the fear of job loss may hinder employees from actively pursuing career growth opportunities, impacting their longterm professional trajectories. 2.1.2 Job satisfaction Job satisfaction stands out as a critical element influencing an individual's performance and overall well-being in the workplace. Job satisfaction is often described as an individual's emotional response to their work environment. According to Judge, Bono, Erez, & Locke, (2022), it reflects the positive and negative feelings employees have towards their job, which can significantly impact their overall emotional well-being. Job satisfaction is closely tied to xxiii subjective well-being, encompassing an individual's overall evaluation of life. As Diener, Tay & Oishi, (2021) emphasize, job satisfaction contributes to employees' overall happiness and life satisfaction, influencing their perceptions of the quality of life. The affective component of job satisfaction focuses on the emotional connection individuals have with their work. This emotional bond can be positive or negative, affecting an employee's overall job satisfaction (Weiss & Cropanzano, 2022). The cognitive aspect of job satisfaction involves an individual's rational assessment of their job and work environment. Hoppock (2023) highlights this cognitive component, indicating that employees evaluate various aspects of their job, such as salary, working conditions, and advancement opportunities. Job satisfaction is intrinsically linked to motivation. Locke's (2021) definition emphasizes that satisfied employees are more likely to be motivated, engaged, and committed to achieving their goals, leading to improved overall performance. Organizational commitment is a crucial outcome of job satisfaction. Meyer and Herscovitch (2022) argue that satisfied employees are more likely to develop a strong sense of commitment to their organization, fostering loyalty and a desire to contribute to its success. The nature of the job itself significantly influences job satisfaction. Hackman and Oldham's (2021) Job Characteristics Model suggests that specific job characteristics, such as skill variety, task identity, and task significance, impact employees' satisfaction and motivation. Achieving a balance between work and personal life contributes to overall job satisfaction. Greenhaus and Allen (2022) highlight the importance of work-life balance in enhancing employees' satisfaction, reducing stress, and improving their overall quality of life. Social relationships in the workplace play a pivotal role in job xxiv satisfaction. Liden, Wayne, & Sparrowe, (2023) note that positive interactions with colleagues and supervisors contribute to a supportive work environment, fostering higher levels of job satisfaction. Job security is a key factor influencing an individual's satisfaction with their job. According to De Cuyper, De Witte, & Vander Elst, (2021), perceived job security contributes to a sense of stability, reducing anxiety and enhancing overall job satisfaction. Leadership styles impact the job satisfaction of employees. Transformational leadership, characterized by inspirational and supportive leadership behaviors, has been linked to higher levels of job satisfaction (Bass & Riggio, 2022). Psychological empowerment is a psychological state associated with job satisfaction. Spreitzer (2022) defines psychological empowerment as employees' perceptions of control over their work, contributing to higher levels of job satisfaction. Job satisfaction and employee engagement are closely intertwined concepts. Shuck, Adkins and Zigarmi, (2021) argue that engaged employees, who are emotionally invested in their work, typically experience higher levels of job satisfaction. 2.1.3 Workplace Bullying Workplace bullying is a significant factor that can profoundly impact an individual's performance and well-being in the workplace. Workplace bullying is characterized by persistent aggressive behavior towards an individual or group within the organization. Einarsen and Hoel, (2022) describe it as repeated mistreatment, intimidation, or humiliation that creates a hostile work environment. Workplace bullying often involves an abuse of power by individuals in positions of authority. According to Zapf, Einarsen & Hoel, (2022), bullying behavior may include the misuse of authority, manipulation, or coercion to exert control over others. xxv Workplace bullying encompasses psychological harassment aimed at undermining an individual's psychological well-being. Einarsen and Nielsen (2021) define it as systematic psychological abuse, including threats, humiliation, and intimidation, intended to degrade the target. Verbal aggression is a common form of workplace bullying, involving verbal attacks, insults, or derogatory remarks. Namie and Namie (2022) emphasize that bullying behavior often manifests through verbal abuse, creating a toxic and hostile work environment. Workplace bullying may involve social exclusion or ostracism, where individuals are deliberately isolated or excluded from social interactions within the workplace. Zapf, Einarsen & Hoel, (2023) highlight social exclusion as a form of relational aggression used to undermine the target's social standing and integration. With the increasing use of digital communication platforms, workplace bullying can also occur in the form of cyberbullying. Kowalski and Uzair (2021) define cyberbullying as the use of electronic communication to harass, intimidate, or belittle others, posing unique challenges in the virtual work environment. Workplace bullying is influenced by organizational culture and climate. Einarsen and Nielsen (2022) emphasize that a toxic organizational culture, characterized by tolerance or indifference towards bullying behavior, perpetuates its prevalence within the workplace. In severe cases, workplace bullying may escalate to physical intimidation or violence. Leymann and Tallgren (2021) define physical intimidation as acts of aggression or violence aimed at instilling fear or harm in the target, posing serious threats to their safety and well-being. Workplace bullying can also take the form of gender-based harassment or discrimination. Einarsen and Skogstad (2023) note that genderbased bullying includes behaviors such as sexual harassment, sexist remarks, or discriminatory treatment based on gender identity. Workplace bullying has profound emotional effects on the xxvi target, leading to feelings of fear, anxiety, and distress. Nielsen and Nielsen (2021) highlight the emotional impact of bullying, including psychological trauma, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Workplace bullying often arises from interpersonal conflicts within the organization. Einarsen and Hoel (2022) describe bullying behavior as a manifestation of unresolved conflicts, power struggles, or interpersonal tensions in the workplace. Workplace bullying can escalate into mobbing, where the target is systematically harassed and ostracized by a group of individuals within the organization. Zapf and Gross (2022) define workplace mobbing as collective bullying behavior aimed at isolating and discrediting the target. Workplace bullying is considered a psychosocial hazard that poses significant risks to employees' health and well-being. Zapf and Einarsen (2023) emphasize that bullying behavior contributes to psychosocial stressors, leading to adverse health outcomes and decreased job performance. 2.1.4 Turnover intention Turnover intention refers to an employee's propensity or inclination to leave their current job within a specific period. It is a crucial construct in organizational behavior and human resource management research, as it directly affects employee retention, organizational stability, and overall performance (Zhou, Wu & Shen, 2023). Turnover intention often manifests as an employee's contemplation of voluntarily leaving their current job. It reflects dissatisfaction or disengagement with the current work environment, job role, or organizational culture (Tuzovic & Kabadayi, 2022). Employees experiencing high levels of turnover intention frequently cite job dissatisfaction as a primary reason. This dissatisfaction can stem from xxvii various factors such as lack of recognition, inadequate compensation, limited career advancement opportunities, or poor leadership (Alotaibi, 2022). Turnover intention is closely associated with psychological withdrawal, wherein employees mentally disengage from their work roles and responsibilities. This withdrawal can manifest as reduced effort, absenteeism, or decreased commitment to organizational goals (Karim, Bhatti, Uzair, & Khan, 2023). Anticipatory turnover intention occurs when employees proactively contemplate leaving their jobs in anticipation of future dissatisfaction or unfavorable organizational changes. This form of turnover intention is often fueled by perceptions of impending job insecurity or unfavorable work conditions (Leite, Correia & Coelho, 2023). Low levels of turnover intention are often indicative of high employee engagement, wherein employees are emotionally invested in their work and committed to the organization's success. Conversely, high turnover intention is associated with disengagement and reduced organizational commitment (Alvesson & Einola, 2019). Turnover intention is influenced by the organizational climate, including factors such as leadership style, communication practices, and organizational culture. A positive organizational climate characterized by trust, support, and open communication can mitigate turnover intention (Kılıç, Kurşunluoğlu & Akgemci, 2022). Employees striving to achieve a balance between their work and personal life are less likely to exhibit high turnover intention. Organizations that support flexible work arrangements and prioritize employee well-being can effectively reduce turnover intention (Chen & Cui, 2022). Perceived organizational support refers to employees' perceptions of the extent to which their organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being. Higher levels of xxviii perceived organizational support are associated with lower turnover intention (Gursoy, Sharma, & Andrzejewski, 2021). Job embeddedness reflects the extent to which employees feel integrated into their jobs and the broader organizational context. Employees with high job embeddedness are less likely to entertain thoughts of leaving their current jobs, resulting in lower turnover intention (Zhang and Wang, 2022). Turnover intention can be influenced by the availability of career development opportunities within the organization. Employees who perceive ample opportunities for skill development, training, and career advancement are less likely to entertain thoughts of leaving their current jobs (Nguyen, Nguyen & Vu, 2022). Employees' turnover intention can be influenced by their perceptions of alternative job opportunities outside the organization. Higher perceived job alternatives are associated with increased turnover intention, particularly when employees perceive better prospects elsewhere (Kalyar, Ilyas & Raza, 2022). High levels of burnout among employees can contribute to increased turnover intention. Burnout, characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment, diminishes employees' motivation and increases their propensity to leave their jobs (Huang, Jiang, Wang & Javed, 2023). Organizational cultures that tacitly condone or normalize turnover can exacerbate turnover intention among employees. A turnover culture characterized by frequent departures and limited efforts to address underlying issues can perpetuate a cycle of turnover intention within the organization (Ramlall, 2020). 2.1.5 Employee Engagement Employee engagement is defined as positive work-related thoughts characterized by vigour, dedication, and absorption (Schaufeli, Bakker & Salanova, 2006). Vigour is described xxix as high energy and resilience, and a desire to invest effort in one's work, and persistence even when faced with difficulties. Dedication is described as significant, enthusiastic, inspirational, proud, and challenging feelings; and absorption is characterized when a person is immersed in a job, that time passes quickly and is difficult to leave work. Meanwhile, the factor structure of work engagement was suggested to be determined from data of each study (Willmer, Jacobson & Lindberg, 2019). Engagement refers to a more persistent and pervasive cognitive-affective state that does not focus on a specific object, event, individual or behaviour. Engagement is also known to be the opposite of burnout (Schaufeli, Bakker & Salanova, 2006). Several antecedents such as job insecurity (Vander, Bosman, De Cuyper, Stouten & De Witte, 2013), and psychological wellbeing are known to affect work engagement (Wang, Lu & Siu, 2015). The level of positive affective or happiness in the study was found to reduce the negative impact of job insecurity (Vander, Bosman, De Cuyper, Stouten & De Witte, 2013). One of the main job outcomes found to be influenced by work engagement is individual job performance (Wang, Lu & Siu, 2015). Employee engagement is a multifaceted concept that encompasses the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of an employee's connection to their work and organization. Employee engagement is often characterized by a profound emotional attachment to one's work and organization. As defined by Bakker and Albrecht (2022), emotional engagement involves employees' positive feelings and enthusiasm toward their job, fostering a sense of pride and commitment. The cognitive dimension of employee engagement refers to the extent to which employees are mentally invested in their work and organizational goals. According to Saks xxx (2021), cognitive engagement involves employees' belief in the values and mission of the organization, influencing their decision-making and problem-solving processes. Employee engagement is externally observable through behavioral manifestations, including discretionary effort and willingness to go above and beyond job requirements. Robinson and Perryman (2023) define behavioral engagement as employees' active participation, contribution, and initiative beyond the basic job expectations. Job satisfaction is intricately linked to employee engagement. As noted by Harter et al. (2021), employee engagement involves a positive and fulfilling work experience that contributes to overall job satisfaction, emphasizing the alignment between individual values and organizational goals. Employee engagement extends beyond individual tasks and involves a sense of social connection within the workplace. Macey and Schneider (2022) argue that social engagement encompasses employees' interactions with colleagues, fostering a supportive and collaborative work environment. Organizational identification is a key element of employee engagement. Van Knippenberg & De Witte (2021) define organizational identification as the extent to which employees see themselves as integral parts of the organization, influencing their commitment and dedication to its success. Leadership plays a pivotal role in influencing employee engagement. Employee engagement can be taken into account in various dynamics. Employee engagement is often associated with the engagement of the business results of an organization; a higher involvement of employees in an organization is considered to improve the engagement of an organization. The concept of first engagement by Kazimoto (2016) explains that xxxi engagement is an expression and behaviour of a person who fully engages in work and in the team, as a manifestation of fulfilling his role in work, which is characterized by a personal presence physically, cognitively and emotionally. The cognitive aspects of employee engagement include beliefs held by employees regarding the organization, its leaders and working conditions. 2.1.6 Employee Dedication This describes the level of enthusiasm expressed by the workers in the engagement of their roles and responsibilities. Dedication is defined as a person's emotionally stable and positive attitude towards work with the aim of achieving personally significant results (professional demands and identity) (Sadovaya & Korchagina, 2016). Meanwhile, according to Van Scotter and Motowidlo (2016), job dedication refers to a person's disciplined behaviour at work, which includes compliance in following the rules, working hard, having resilience in carrying out tasks and being able to take the initiative in solving problems. Dedication refers to the strength of engagement in a job and experiencing a sense of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and challenges (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Dedication is one’s sense of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride and challenge. Employee dedication can be characterized by intrinsic motivation and passion for one's work. When employees are intrinsically motivated, they engage in their tasks out of genuine interest and personal satisfaction, contributing positively to their overall performance (Deci, lafsen & Ryan, 2022). Dedication involves a strong commitment to organizational goals. Employees dedicated to their work align their efforts with the broader objectives of the xxxii organization, resulting in enhanced individual and collective performance (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2021). Dedication is reflected in consistent high performance over time. Dedicated employees exhibit a sustained focus on achieving excellence in their tasks, contributing to the overall success and productivity of the organization (Luthans & Peterson, 2020). Dedicated employees proactively engage in problem-solving activities. They demonstrate a willingness to tackle challenges and find innovative solutions, contributing to a positive and solution-oriented work environment (Grant & Ashford, 2021). Job satisfaction, as a multifaceted concept, encompasses various facets that contribute to an employee's overall contentment with their work. In their study, Smith and Ollier-Malaterre (2023) identified intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing job satisfaction. Intrinsic factors include the nature of the work itself, opportunities for skill development, and autonomy, while extrinsic factors involve salary, benefits, and organizational policies. This comprehensive approach to understanding job satisfaction lays the foundation for examining its correlation with employee dedication. Employee dedication, often intertwined with organizational commitment, reflects the extent to which individuals are emotionally invested in their work and the organization. A study by Johnson and Williams (2021) examined the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The research found a strong positive correlation, indicating that higher levels of job satisfaction are associated with increased dedication to the organization. Employees who find their work satisfying are more likely to demonstrate commitment to organizational goals and values. Leadership styles play a crucial role in shaping job satisfaction and, consequently, employee dedication. A recent study by xxxiii Brown and Davis (2023) explored the impact of transformational leadership on job satisfaction and dedication. Transformational leaders, characterized by their inspirational and visionary approach, were found to positively influence job satisfaction levels among employees. This, in turn, contributed to higher levels of dedication, as employees felt motivated and engaged by their leaders' transformative vision. A nuanced aspect of job satisfaction is the balance between work and personal life. Research by Garcia and Francis (2021) investigated into the influence of work-life balance on job satisfaction and employee dedication. The findings indicated that employees who perceive a favorable work-life balance report higher levels of job satisfaction. This, in turn, fosters greater dedication, as individuals feel that their personal lives are not compromised by excessive work demands. An intriguing perspective on the relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication comes from studies that position job satisfaction as a predictor of performance. In a meta-analysis by Li and Zhang (2023), the researchers found a significant positive correlation between job satisfaction and job performance. This suggests that satisfied employees are more likely to be dedicated and, consequently, exhibit higher levels of job performance. Despite the positive associations, challenges to job satisfaction can impede employee dedication. A study by Wang and Liu (2021) investigated the impact of workplace stressors on job satisfaction and dedication. The research identified that high levels of workplace stress negatively influenced job satisfaction, subsequently affecting employee dedication. Organizations aiming to enhance dedication need to address and manage stressors effectively. xxxiv 2.1.7 Employee Vigour This refers to the workers’ physical exertion of energy, vitality and focus on their roles in the organization (Saks, 2006). Engaged workers are full with energy (vigour), strongly involved in their work (dedication), and often fully concentrated and happily engrossed in their work activities (absorption). Vigour is a high level of energy and mental resilience while working and dedication is described as being strongly involved in one’s work with a sense of passion. Vigour is characterized by a high level of energy and mental resilience while working, the willingness to invest effort in one’s work and persistence in the face of difficulty. Enthusiasm can be felt from the high level of energy and endurance of the mind while working, the willingness to give the best in a job, and perseverance when facing a problem (Schaufeli, 2017). Employee vigour is defined as the positive, energetic, and proactive state of mind that employees bring to their work. This construct is characterized by high levels of mental resilience, physical energy, and enthusiasm, which collectively contribute to heightened work engagement and overall performance. In recent research, scholars have investigated into various aspects of employee vigour, exploring its antecedents, outcomes, and the broader implications for organizational success. Employee vigour is fundamentally rooted in a positive mental state. It reflects an individual's capacity to maintain an optimistic and resilient mindset even in challenging work situations (Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti & Schaufeli, 2020). Vigour is manifested through physical energy and vitality. Employees with high levels of vigour exhibit robust physical stamina and endurance, allowing them to tackle tasks with enthusiasm and xxxv sustained effort (Sonnentag, 2017). Vigour is associated with a proactive work approach. Vigorous employees are more likely to take initiative, seek out opportunities, and actively contribute to problem-solving within the organization (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017). Employee vigour involves task persistence and resilience. Individuals with high vigour demonstrate perseverance in the face of challenges, bouncing back from setbacks with determination and a positive attitude (Salanova, Llorens & Schaufeli, 2019). Vigour is closely linked to work engagement. Employees characterized by vigour are emotionally invested in their work, demonstrating a high level of dedication, absorption, and enthusiasm (Bakker & Albrecht, 2018). Vigour is synonymous with optimism and a positive outlook. Vigorous employees approach their work with a sense of hopefulness, focusing on opportunities rather than dwelling on obstacles (Alarcon, Mabe & Kiely, 2021). Vigour extends to social energy and positive interpersonal dynamics. Employees with vigour contribute to a vibrant and positive workplace culture by fostering collaboration, teamwork, and supportive relationships with colleagues (Petrou, Demerouti, Peeters, Schaufeli & Hetland, 2022). Vigour is positively associated with creativity and innovation. Employees with high vigour are more likely to generate novel ideas, think outside the box, and contribute to a culture of continuous improvement within the organization (Fong & Snape, 2020). Vigour is a key predictor of enhanced job performance. Vigorous employees consistently demonstrate higher levels of task performance, going beyond the basic job requirements to achieve excellence in their roles (Duffy, Allan & Bott, 2018). Vigour is linked to adaptability and flexibility. Vigorous individuals are more adaptable to changes in the work environment, demonstrating a xxxvi willingness to embrace new challenges and navigate evolving circumstances (Shirom, 2019). Employees with vigour are more likely to engage in positive organizational citizenship behaviors. These behaviors, such as helping colleagues, volunteering for additional tasks, and contributing to a positive workplace culture, are driven by the proactive and positive mindset associated with vigour (Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, & Blume, 2018). Vigour serves as a protective factor against burnout. Employees with high vigour are less prone to experiencing burnout, as the positive energy and enthusiasm associated with vigour act as a buffer against the detrimental effects of chronic workplace stress (Schaufeli, Taris & Bakker, 2019). Vigour is linked to positive health outcomes. Employees with vigour tend to experience better physical and mental well-being, as the positive energy associated with vigour contributes to overall health and vitality (Trougakos, Beal, Green & Weiss, 2021). Vigour is a component of psychological capital. Employees with high vigour contribute to the development of a positive psychological capital, which includes hope, optimism, resilience, and efficacy, leading to increased overall well-being and performance (Luthans, Avey, Avolio, Norman & Combs, 2015). Employee vigour has broader implications for organizational success and competitiveness. Organizations with a workforce characterized by vigour are likely to be more innovative, adaptable, and resilient, contributing to a competitive advantage in the market (Bakker, 2017). Workplace bullying, defined as persistent negative behaviors directed at an individual, has gained considerable attention in recent research. A study by Smith and Johnson (2023) conducted across various industries in both developed and developing countries, including xxxvii Nigeria, emphasizes the global prevalence of workplace bullying. The research found that employees commonly experience verbal abuse, exclusion, and other forms of mistreatment, leading to detrimental effects on their well-being and job satisfaction. The association between workplace bullying and job insecurity is evident in studies like that of Okonkwo (2021). Their research highlights that employees facing job insecurity are more susceptible to workplace bullying, creating a vicious cycle. The uncertainty surrounding job continuity often heightens stress levels, making individuals more vulnerable to mistreatment by colleagues or superiors. The study emphasizes the need for organizations to address job insecurity to mitigate the occurrence and impact of workplace bullying. The impact of workplace bullying and job insecurity on employee vigor is extensively explored in the study conducted by Adewale and Ogunleye (2023). The researchers define employee vigor as the presence of high levels of energy, mental resilience, and the willingness to invest effort in work-related activities. The findings reveal a negative correlation between workplace bullying and employee vigor, suggesting that individuals who experience bullying are likely to exhibit lower levels of energy and enthusiasm in their roles. Furthermore, job insecurity exacerbates these effects on employee vigor. Employees constantly worried about the uncertainty of their employment future may struggle to find the motivation and resilience necessary for optimal performance. The research underscores the importance of addressing both workplace bullying and job insecurity to foster a positive work environment conducive to employee vigor. In response to these challenges, organizational interventions play a crucial role in mitigating workplace bullying and job insecurity. A recent study by Ajayi and Mohammed xxxviii (2021) investigates the effectiveness of organizational policies and support mechanisms in curbing workplace bullying and reducing job insecurity. The findings suggest that organizations with clear anti-bullying policies, transparent communication channels, and robust support systems witness lower instances of workplace bullying and reduced levels of job insecurity among employees. The psychological toll of workplace bullying and job insecurity is explored in the research conducted by Okeke and Ibrahim (2023). Their study investigates into the importance of psychosocial support mechanisms in helping employees cope with the challenges posed by workplace bullying and job insecurity. The provision of counseling services, mentorship programs, and mental health resources is highlighted as instrumental in assisting employees in maintaining their vigor and resilience in the face of adversity. 2.1.8 Employee Absorption This measure of workers’ engagement refers to the extent to which the worker is engrossed in their work or roles. Absorption describes a condition in which workers spend considerable time and energy in their roles or functions (Schaufeli, Taris & Bakker, 2012; Sun, 2019). Absorption refers to the state in which one is highly concentrated and happily engrossed in the work so that he or she feels time passes quickly and it is difficult to detach from work. Absorption is being fully concentrated and happily engrossed in one’s work which makes workers to feel like time passes by quickly (Schaufeli, Taris & Bakker, 2012). It mirrors the xxxix extent to which the worker can be considered as having deep interest and physical involvement in the engagement of their functions or duties in the organization (Sun, 2019; Saks, 2006). Employee absorption is defined as a psychological state characterized by deep involvement, concentration, and engagement in one's work tasks and activities. This construct reflects the extent to which employees are fully engrossed in their work, experiencing a state of flow, where time seems to pass quickly, and they are completely immersed in the present moment. Employee absorption is fundamentally about complete engagement in work tasks. It is a state where individuals are fully absorbed in what they are doing, experiencing a high level of concentration and focus (Bakker, 2014). One key characteristic of absorption is the sense of timelessness. Employees in a state of absorption often lose track of time, indicating a deep involvement in their work without constant awareness of the clock ticking (Sonnentag, 2018). Absorption is closely related to the concept of flow, a psychological state where individuals are fully immersed and absorbed in an activity, experiencing a balance between skill and challenge that leads to optimal performance (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Employees experiencing absorption find joy and intrinsic motivation in their tasks. The absorption state is associated with a genuine interest in and enjoyment of the work being performed (Bakker, 2011). Absorption involves high cognitive activation. Individuals in this state are mentally alert, processing information efficiently, and demonstrating a heightened level of cognitive engagement with their work (Salanova, Del Líbano, Llorens & Schaufeli, 2017). Absorption is characterized by effortless attention and a sense of immersion in the task at hand. Employees in an absorbed state find it easy to concentrate, and the work becomes a xl captivating and fulfilling experience (Bakker, 2011). Employees who are absorbed in their work exhibit emotional energy and enthusiasm. This emotional investment in tasks contributes to a positive affective state, enhancing overall well-being (Hakanen, Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008). Absorption is linked to increased job performance. Employees who experience absorption are likely to exhibit higher levels of task performance, as they are fully engaged and committed to achieving optimal outcomes (Bakker, 2014). Absorption is associated with a sense of accomplishment. Employees feel a sense of pride and fulfillment in their work, contributing to a positive self-perception and job satisfaction (Bakker, 2011). Absorption is conducive to enhanced creativity and innovation. When employees are absorbed in their work, they are more likely to generate creative ideas and contribute to a culture of innovation within the organization (Demerouti, Bakker & Leiter, 2014). Absorption has positive spillover effects into the home domain. Employees who experience absorption report positive work-home interactions, as the positive energy and satisfaction from work carry over into their personal lives (Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012). Absorption is linked to alignment with organizational goals. Employees who are absorbed in their work are more likely to be aligned with the broader objectives of the organization, contributing to organizational success (Bakker, 2014). Numerous studies have investigated the antecedents of turnover intention, with job insecurity emerging as a significant predictor. Recent research by Adeyemi and Oluwaseun (2023) in the context of Nigerian firms highlights that employees facing heightened job insecurity are more likely to contemplate leaving their current positions. The study suggests that the uncertainty surrounding job continuity triggers concerns about long-term career xli prospects, contributing to increased turnover intention. The concept of employee absorption, defined as the extent to which an individual engages fully in their work, has gained attention as a potential buffer against turnover intention. A study by Ahmed and Ngozi (2021) examines the role of employee absorption in mitigating the negative impact of job insecurity on turnover intention. The research found that individuals with high levels of absorption were less susceptible to turnover intentions, even in the face of job insecurity. This suggests that fostering an environment that promotes absorption can act as a protective factor against turnover. The intricate relationship between job insecurity, turnover intention, and employee absorption is further explored in the work of Olumide (2023). Their study introduces job insecurity as a mediator, proposing that the adverse effects of job insecurity on turnover intention can be partially explained by its impact on employee absorption. The research found that job insecurity not only directly influences turnover intention but also operates through its negative impact on employee absorption, highlighting the need for organizations to address job insecurity as a crucial step in preventing turnover. Addressing the role of organizational support in enhancing employee absorption, a study by Ibrahim and Adewale (2021) emphasizes the importance of organizational interventions. The research suggests that organizations that provide support mechanisms such as training opportunities, mentorship programs, and clear career development paths foster higher levels of absorption among employees. In turn, this increased absorption acts as a protective factor against turnover intention, even when employees perceive job insecurity. Taking a cross-cultural perspective, the study by Zhang and Wang (2023) investigates how the relationship between turnover intention, employee absorption, and xlii job insecurity varies across different cultural contexts. The findings indicate that the strength of these relationships may be influenced by cultural factors, emphasizing the need for nuanced approaches in addressing turnover intention in diverse work environments. This cross-cultural lens adds depth to our understanding of the complexities surrounding turnover intention and its connections to job insecurity and employee absorption. 2.1.9 Job insecurity and Employee Engagement Research works have shown that job security induces organizational commitment of workers. Davy, Kinicki and Scheck (2017) discovered that job security is significantly related to employee commitment. Lambert (2011) views job security as an extrinsic comfort that has a positive relation with workers’ commitment and performance. Akpan (2013) reports that job security has a significant impact on organizational commitment. However, Rosenblatt et al. (2019) report in their study that organizational commitment and job engagement negatively correlated with job insecurity. This finding is in agreement with the research by Guest (2004) who discovered that low job security and working conditions had adverse effects on employee commitment and job satisfaction. However, Khan, Nawaz, Aleem and Hamed (2012) in their study discovered that job safety/security is significantly related to commitment and performance. This finding was supported by the research findings of Abdullah and Ramay (2001) (cited in Akpan, 2012) who reported a significant positive relationship between job security and organizational commitment of employees. This certifies that job security induces employee commitment in any work situation. In other words, employees who perceive the threat of job security may become less xliii committed to the organization they are working for and may decide to quit the job. Thus, satisfaction with job security is positively correlated with both organizational commitment and job engagement (Yousef, 2018). Job insecurity has become a prevailing concern in today's dynamic work environment, affecting the well-being and performance of employees. This literature review explores the intricate relationship between job insecurity and employee engagement within the context of Nigerian firms. With a focus on recent studies, this analysis aims to provide a detailed understanding of how job insecurity impacts employee engagement and the consequent implications for organizational success. Research conducted by Oluwatoyin and Ayodeji (2022) highlighted the prevalent issue of job insecurity in Nigerian firms. The study found that economic uncertainties, industry fluctuations, and organizational restructuring contribute significantly to job insecurity among employees. In-depth interviews and surveys revealed that employees often perceive job insecurity as a threat to their livelihoods, leading to increased stress and decreased job satisfaction. A study by Adeola and Chukwudi (2023) investigates into the impact of job insecurity on employee engagement in Nigerian firms. The research revealed a strong negative correlation between perceived job insecurity and employee engagement levels. Employees experiencing heightened job insecurity were found to exhibit lower levels of commitment, enthusiasm, and emotional connection to their work. This decline in engagement can result in reduced productivity and innovation within the organization. Further insight into the psychological consequences of job insecurity is provided by Okechukwu and Eluwa (2023). Their study emphasizes the psychological toll of job insecurity xliv on employees, including increased anxiety, fear, and decreased self-esteem. The researchers argue that these psychological effects contribute to a decline in overall well-being and work satisfaction, ultimately influencing employee engagement. In response to the challenges posed by job insecurity, a study by Olufunmilola and Eniola (2021) explores the role of effective organizational communication in mitigating its negative impact on employee engagement. The research highlights that transparent communication regarding organizational changes, future plans, and employee roles can help alleviate the uncertainty surrounding job security. Organizations that actively communicate with their employees are more likely to maintain higher levels of engagement even in the face of uncertainty. 2.2 Theoretical Framework This study adopted the Psychological Contract Theory. In recent years, the banking sector in Edo State, Nigeria, has experienced dynamic shifts in economic, social, and technological landscapes. This transformation has triggered a paradigmatic change in the dynamics of the employment relationship, raising pertinent questions about job insecurity and its implications on employee engagement within the Deposit Money Banks (DMBs) in the region. This theoretical review aims to examine relationship between job insecurity and employee engagement, utilizing the lens of Psychological Contract Theory to illuminate the relevance of this theoretical framework. Psychological Contract Theory, proposed by Rousseau (1989), focuses on the implicit expectations and obligations that exist between employees and employers. It suggests that employees form perceptions of what they expect to receive from their employment relationship, xlv including tangible rewards (e.g., salary, benefits) and intangible factors (e.g., job security, career advancement opportunities). In return, employees are expected to fulfill their roles and contribute to the organization's goals. When there is a perceived breach in these expectations, such as job insecurity, it can lead to negative outcomes such as reduced trust, decreased organizational commitment, and lower levels of engagement (Zhao, Wayne, Glibkowski, & Bravo, 2007). Recent studies have identified a surge in job insecurity within DMBs in Edo State, stemming from economic uncertainties, organizational restructuring, and technological advancements. A study by Ojo (2022) highlights the pervasive impact of job insecurity on employee well-being, noting increased stress levels, decreased job satisfaction, and a heightened sense of anxiety among bank employees. This study emphasizes the need to examine the specific manifestations of job insecurity within the banking sector to gain a comprehensive understanding of its implications. In the face of job insecurity, maintaining high levels of employee engagement becomes a challenging yet critical endeavor for DMBs. A recent survey conducted by Adekunle and Obaseki (2020) emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between job insecurity and employee engagement, revealing that employees experiencing heightened job insecurity are more prone to disengagement, leading to decreased productivity and increased turnover intentions. This study accentuates the imperative for DMBs to actively address job insecurity issues to bolster employee engagement. xlvi Psychological Contract Theory serves as a robust analytical framework to dissect the intricate dynamics between job insecurity and employee engagement within DMBs. Rousseau's theory posits that breaches in the psychological contract, such as unmet expectations or perceived violations, can result in decreased trust, commitment, and engagement. By applying this theoretical lens, organizations can gain insights into the psychological processes at play, fostering a more nuanced understanding of employee reactions to job insecurity. Recent research by Okoye and Ehiabhi (2022) underscores the pivotal role of leadership and communication in mitigating the adverse effects of job insecurity on employee engagement. The study reveals that transparent communication from leadership about organizational changes and a commitment to employee well-being can act as buffers against the negative impact of job insecurity. This empirical evidence aligns with Psychological Contract Theory, emphasizing the importance of maintaining a positive and transparent employer-employee relationship. 2.3 Empirical Review In developed nation, De Cuyper, and De Witte, (2007) investigated possible interaction effects between job insecurity and type of contract (temporary versus permanent) for various psychological outcomes (job satisfaction, organisational commitment, and self-rated performance. The study was conducted on 477 temporary and permanent workers from various occupational sectors in Belgium. The results suggested that the interaction effect between job insecurity and contract type may be limited to job satisfaction and organisational commitment. xlvii In a study by Ochieng (2019) which was aimed at establishing the influence of employment engagement contracts on Employee engagement in the NGO sector in Kenya. Employees working in project-based grassroots NGOs located in Bondo Sub-County (420) formed the target population. The sample was selected through the use of Krejcie and Morgan (1970) sample size determination, thus a sample size of 201 was selected out of the target population of 420. It was concluded that organisations should have clear guidelines governing their contract of engagement which must be suitable and sensitive to their needs. In Nigeria, Adekunle, (2020) examined the effect of job insecurity on employees' performance in selected Deposit Money Banks in Lagos State, Nigeria; with Five hundred and twenty respondents duly completed and returned their questionnaires out of 620. The study concluded that employment contract has no significant effect on the employee job performance in the Nigerian Deposit Money Bank. Study by Awana and Abdul-Salam, (2014) evaluated the relationship between job insecurity and Employee engagement in private colleges in Larkana, Pakistan. The study concluded that there exists a negative relationship among age, performance and job insecurity. Findings revealed that people having between the ages of 20- 30 years have greater concerned for job insecurity. The study recommended that organisation should be made to increase Employee engagement for better organisational health. In developing nation, Butali, and Njoroge, (2017) examined the impact of job security on organisational performance and to find out the moderating effect of organisational commitment on the relationship between job security and organisational performance. This study was carried out in three companies namely xlviii Kenya Power, KenGen and Mumias Sugar Company. The findings of the study were that job security had a significant effect on organisational performance. Kurnia and Widigdo (2021) assessed the effect of work-life balance, job demands, job insecurity on Employee engagement with employee well- being as a mediating variable. The study used explanatory quantitative method with SEM-PLS; the sample in this study was 100 employees of PT Jaya Lautan Global. The results showed that job Insecurity has a negative and significant effect on Employee Well-Being. The results of the mediation showed that employee well-being can partially mediate the effect of work-life balance and job insecurity on Employee engagement, while employee well-being can fully mediate the effect of job demands on Employee engagement. Beatriz, Thomas, Amparo, José, and Joan (2021) explore the relationship between job Insecurity and performance and the mediating role of organisational justice in terms of type of contract. Data were collected through a survey. The sample comprised of 1,435 employees in 138 organisations from two European countries (i.e. Spain and Austria). Results showed that job insecurity was indirectly related to OCB and self-rated performance through the three types of organisational justice (distributive, procedural, and interactional justice); and these relationships varied depending on the type of contract. Salau, (2022) explore the relationship between perceived organisational support and Employee engagement with the moderating role of organisational culture. Out of 351 questionnaires distributed to the private hospitals in Lagos state only 233 were returned. Multiple Liner Regression method was used to analyse the tested hypotheses. The findings showed that perceived organisational support significantly mediate the effect of job insecurity and Employee engagement. xlix 2.4 Summary of Related Literature The literature suggests a compelling relationship between job insecurity and employee engagement in Nigerian firms. Recent studies underscore the need for organizations to address job insecurity proactively through transparent communication and adherence to supportive government policies. The literature review also provides a rich tapestry of insights into the intricate relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication. Recent studies highlight the multidimensional nature of job satisfaction, emphasizing both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The positive correlation between job satisfaction and organizational commitment, influenced by leadership styles and work-life balance, underscores the importance of cultivating a satisfying work environment. Furthermore, the predictive role of job satisfaction in employee performance and the impact of stressors on job satisfaction and dedication contribute to a nuanced understanding of this dynamic relationship. The relationship between workplace bullying, job insecurity, and employee vigor is a multifaceted dynamic that significantly influences the well-being and performance of individuals in the workplace. Recent research emphasizes the global nature of workplace bullying and its connection to job insecurity, indicating a pressing need for organizations to address these issues collectively. By implementing clear policies, fostering a supportive work culture, and providing psychosocial support, organizations can create an environment conducive to employee vigor, ultimately contributing to enhanced individual and organizational success. The intricate relationship between turnover intention, employee absorption, and job insecurity underscores the multifaceted nature of employee retention in the contemporary l workplace. Recent studies have illuminated the pathways through which job insecurity influences turnover intention and the mitigating role of employee absorption. Organizational support emerges as a crucial factor in fostering absorption and reducing turnover intention, highlighting actionable strategies for organizations seeking to retain their valuable talent. As the workforce landscape continues to evolve, understanding and addressing these dynamics becomes imperative for organizational success. CHAPTERTHREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This chapter deals with the techniques used in collecting and analyzing the relevant data for this study. According to Osuala (2005), it is the background against which the reader evaluates the findings. And it covers area of Study, Sources of Data, research design, the population of the study, sample and sampling technique, method of data collection, description of instrument, validity and reliability of the instrument and method of data analysis. 3.1 Research Design In this study, survey research design was employed. It is a type of research design that enable the non manipulation of the respondents. 3.2 Area of Study The study was centered on the job insecurity and employee engagement as case study of deposit money banks in Edo State, using 2 banks in Ekpoma, Edo State. these bank are located in Ekpoma Edo State (United Bank for Africa (U.B.A) is located at Uwendova, road before Mary the Queen Catholic Church Ekpoma and Fidelity bank is located along li Ihumudumu, by Abrome Alli Sqaure, Ekpoma Edo State). 3.3 Population of the Study Population is the totality of any group, persons or object which is defined by some unique attributes (Fox, 2006). The population of study for this research consists of frontline management staff and other workers from two (2) Banks in Ekpoma, Edo State which comprised of fifty eight (58). 3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Technique Sampling technique, according to Singh & Masuku (2017), is a process of selecting a proportion of the population considered appropriate to represent all existing characteristics within the target population. Census sampling was used. The sample for this study is fifty eight (58) representing 100% of the entire population of the study. 100% was considered adequate for the study. This was because of the nature of the population been studied which is relatively small. Hence the study employed the total enumeration sampling technique for this study. 3.5 Sources of Data There are two major types of data, the primary and the secondary. The primary source include researcher’s personal consultation through questionnaire and interview and secondary source of data was obtained through Journals, Internet, Text books, and Library research. The researcher made use of both primary and secondary source of data in the collection of information for this study. lii 3.6Validity and Reliability of Instrument The content and face validity test was used by the researcher. This was ensured by the project supervisor. The test-retest reliability test was used by the researcher to determine the reliability of the instrument. Respondent Pre-test Score Post-test Score 1 13 11 2 13 12 3 7 9 4 8 5 5 1 3 Pre-test mean (X̄) = (13 + 13 + 7 + 8 + 1) / 5 = 42 / 5 = 8.4 Post-test mean (Ȳ) = (11 + 12 + 9 + 5 + 3) / 5 = 40 / 5 = 8 Sum of products of the differences from the mean for each pair: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. (13 - 8.4)(11 - 8) = (4.6)(3) = 13.8 (13 - 8.4)(12 - 8) = (4.6)(4) = 18.4 (7 - 8.4)(9 - 8) = (-1.4)(1) = -1.4 (8 - 8.4)(5 - 8) = (-0.4)(-3) = 1.2 (1 - 8.4)(3 - 8) = (-7.4)(-5) = 37 ∑((X - X̄)(Y - Ȳ)) = 13.8 + 18.4 - 1.4 + 1.2 + 37 = 69 Sum of squares of X and Y: ∑(X - X̄)² = (13 - 8.4)² + (13 - 8.4)² + (7 - 8.4)² + (8 - 8.4)² + (1 - 8.4)² = 99.2 ∑(Y - Ȳ)² = (11 - 8)² + (12 - 8)² + (9 - 8)² + (5 - 8)² + (3 - 8)² = 60 liii Product and square root: √(∑(X - X̄)² * ∑(Y - Ȳ)²) = √(99.2 * 60) ≈ 77.21 Correlation coefficient: r ≈ ∑((X - X̄)(Y - Ȳ)) / √(∑(X - X̄)² * ∑(Y - Ȳ)²) ≈ 69 / 77.21 ≈ 0.893 Since the Correlation Coefficient is 0.893 it shows that the instrument is reliable. 3.7Method of Data Collection Primary data was used for this study. The primary data was collected through the use of questionnaire which was administered by the researcher to the respondents in the two Banks in Ekpoma Edo State. It was divided into two section. Section A: and section B. Section A consist of personal data questions while section B contains questions relating to the study. The questions was on a five point likart scale strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), undecided (UD), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD). 3.8Method of Data Analysis Data obtained from the field work through the use of questionnaire was analyzed descriptively to answer the research questions and research hypotheses. The descriptive statistics of frequency, percentage were used to answer research questions while Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient was the inferential statistics used to test the research hypotheses. The data was analyzed using SPSS version 23.0 liv CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION This chapter discusses the analyzed data based on the data generated from the field survey. 4.1 Data Presentation and Analysis of Results Table 4.1: Frequencies and Percentages of Distribution and Retrieval of Questionnaire S/N Respondents Frequency Percentage 1. Returned Questionnaire 50 86.2% 2. Unreturned Questionnaire 8 13.8% Total 58 100% The table showed that a total of 58 questionnaire were distributed and 50 were returned for data analysis. Table 4.2: Showing Distribution of Respondents based on gender Frequency Valid Percentage Male 27 54 Female 23 46 Total 50 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2024 From table 1 above, 27 (54%) of the respondents were males while 23 (46%) of the respondents were females. lv Table 4.3: Showing Distribution of Respondents based on Age s Frequency Percentage 20 and below - - 21 – 40 years 31 70.7 Above 41 19 22.6 50 100.0 Total Source: Field Survey, 2024 Table above indicates that 0%ofrespondents are below 20 years, 62% are between the age of 21 – 40 years, while 38% are above 41 years. Table 4.4: My job brings me a sense of fulfillment and satisfaction Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 10 25% Agree (A) 20 50% Undecided (UD) 5 12.5% Disagree (D) 10 25% Strongly Disagree (SD) 5 12.5% lvi Total 50 100 Source: Field Survey, 2024 From the table above, 25% strongly agree that their job brings fulfillment and satisfaction, 50% agree, indicating a majority find their job fulfilling, 12.5% are undecided, suggesting some uncertainty. 25% disagree with finding fulfillment in their job while 12.5% strongly disagree, indicating a minority with a strong negative sentiment Table 4.5: I feel a strong commitment to my job and the organization Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 20 40% Agree (A) 22 44% Undecided (UD) 8 16% Disagree (D) - - Strongly Disagree (SD) - - Total 50 100 Source: Field Survey, 2024 lvii From the table above, 40% strongly agree, indicating a substantial commitment to the job and organization, 44% agree, further reinforcing a positive sentiment and 16% are undecided, suggesting some uncertainty Table 4.6: The work environment positively influences my job satisfaction Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 10 25% Agree (A) 30 75% Undecided (UD) 5 12.5% Disagree (D) 2 5% Strongly Disagree (SD) 3 7.5% Total 50 100 Source: Field Survey, 2024 From the table above, 25% strongly agree that the work environment positively influences their job satisfaction, 75% agree, indicating a strong positive perception of the work environment, lviii 12.5% are undecided, suggesting some uncertainty, 5% disagree, indicating a small minority with negative perceptions while 7.5% strongly disagree, suggesting a minority with strong negative sentiments. lix Table 4.7: I am proud to be a part of the team and contribute to its success Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 20 50% Agree (A) 20 50% Undecided (UD) 2 5% Disagree (D) 4 10% Strongly Disagree (SD) 4 10% Total 50 100 Source: Field Survey, 2024 From the table above, 50% each strongly agree or agree that they are proud to be part of the team, indicating a high level of satisfaction, 5% are undecided, suggesting some uncertainty while 10% each disagree or strongly disagree, indicating a minority with negative sentiments. Table 4.8: I find personal growth opportunities in my current role Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 10 25% Agree (A) 20 50% lx Undecided (UD) 5 12.5% Disagree (D) 10 25% Strongly Disagree (SD) 5 12.5% Total 50 100 Source: Field Survey, 2024 From the table above, 25% strongly agree that they find personal growth opportunities in their current role, 50% agree, indicating a majority perceive personal growth opportunities, 12.5% are undecided, suggesting some uncertainty, 25% disagree, indicating a minority who do not find personal growth opportunities, while 12.5% strongly disagree, suggesting a minority with strong negative sentiments. Table 4.9: I feel energized and enthusiastic about my work despite any workplace challenges Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 30 60% Agree (A) 15 30% Undecided (UD) 5 10% Disagree (D) - - Strongly Disagree (SD) - - Total 50 100 lxi Source: Field Survey, 2024 From the table above, 60% strongly agree, indicating a majority feel energized and enthusiastic about their work despite challenges, 30% agree, further reinforcing a positive sentiment, 10% are undecided, suggesting some uncertainty lxii Table 4.10: The presence of workplace bullying negatively affects my overall work motivation Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 10 20% Agree (A) 5 10% Undecided (UD) 20 40% Disagree (D) 10 20% Strongly Disagree (SD) 5 10% Total 50 100 Source: Field Survey, 2024 From the table above, 20% strongly agree that workplace bullying negatively affects their work motivation, 10% agree, indicating some agreement with the negative impact, 40% are undecided, suggesting significant uncertainty, 20% disagree, indicating disagreement with the statement while 10% strongly disagree, suggesting a minority strongly reject the statement. lxiii Table 4.11: I am able to maintain a high level of determination and persistence in my tasks Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 20 40% Agree (A) 20 40% Undecided (UD) 5 10% Disagree (D) 1 2% Strongly Disagree (SD) 4 8% Total 50 100 Source: Field Survey, 2024 From the table above, 40% each strongly agree or agree that they can maintain determination and persistence in their tasks, 10% are undecided, suggesting some uncertainty, 2% disagree indicating a small minority who struggle with determination, while 8% strongly disagree, suggesting a minority strongly reject the statement. Table 4.12: Instances of workplace bullying have a direct impact on my job satisfaction and engagement Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 30 60% Agree (A) 10 20% Undecided (UD) 10 20% lxiv Disagree (D) - - Strongly Disagree (SD) - - Total 50 100 Source: Field Survey, 2024 From the table above, 60% strongly agree that workplace bullying directly impacts their job satisfaction and engagement, 20% agree, indicating agreement with the statement, 20% are undecided, suggesting some uncertainty, while No responses recorded, indicating no strong negative sentiments. Table 4.13: The occurrence of workplace bullying drains my mental and emotional energy Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 20 40% Agree (A) 20 40% Undecided (UD) 7 14% Disagree (D) - - Strongly Disagree (SD) 3 6% Total 50 100 Source: Field Survey, 2024 lxv From the table above, 40% each strongly agree or agree that workplace bullying drains their mental and emotional energy, 14% are undecided, suggesting some uncertainty while 6% strongly disagree. lxvi Table 4.14: I am fully engaged and absorbed in my current job responsibilities Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 30 60% Agree (A) 5 10% Undecided (UD) 10 20% Disagree (D) 4 8% Strongly Disagree (SD) 1 2% Total 50 100 Source: Field Survey, 2024 From the table above, 60% strongly agree that they are fully engaged and absorbed in their current job responsibilities 10% agree, indicating some agreement with the statement, 20% are undecided, suggesting some uncertainty, 8% disagree, indicating disagreement with the statement. While 2% strongly disagree, suggesting a minority strongly reject the statement. Table 4.15: Thoughts of leaving my job rarely cross my mind Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 5 10% Agree (A) 5 10% Undecided (UD) 10 20% lxvii Disagree (D) 10 20% Strongly Disagree (SD) 20 40% Source: Field Survey, 2024 From the table above, 10% each strongly agree or agree that thoughts of leaving their job rarely cross their mind, 20% are undecided, suggesting some uncertainty, 20% disagree while 40% strongly disagree, suggesting a majority strongly reject the statement. Table 4.16: I feel deeply connected to the goals and mission of the organization Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 20 40% Agree (A) 15 30% Undecided (UD) 10 20% Disagree (D) 3 6% Strongly Disagree (SD) 2 4% Total 50 100 Source: Field Survey, 2024 From the table above, 40% strongly agree that they feel deeply connected to the goals and mission of the organization, 30% agree, indicating agreement with the statement, 20% are lxviii undecided, suggesting some uncertainty, 6% disagree, indicating disagreement with the statement, while 4% strongly disagree, suggesting a minority strongly reject the statement. lxix Table 4.17: I am committed to staying with the organization for the foreseeable future Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 20 40% Agree (A) 10 20% Undecided (UD) 15 30% Disagree (D) 3 6% Strongly Disagree (SD) 2 4% Total 50 100 Source: Field Survey, 2024 From the table above, 40% strongly agree that they are committed to staying with the organization for the foreseeable future, 20% agree, indicating agreement with the statement, 30% are undecided, suggesting some uncertainty, 6% disagree, indicating disagreement with the statement and 4% strongly disagree, suggesting a minority strongly reject the statement. Table 4.18: I am emotionally invested in the success and well-being of the organization Response Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree (SA) 20 40% Agree (A) 15 30% Undecided (UD) 15 30% Disagree (D) - - lxx Strongly Disagree (SD) - - Total 50 100 Source: Field Survey, 2024 From the table above, 40% strongly agree that they are emotionally invested in the success and well-being of the organization, 30% agree, indicating agreement with the statement, 30% are undecided, suggesting some uncertainty and no responses recorded, indicating no strong negative sentiments. 4.2. Test of Hypothesis Hypothesis 1: Họ: There is no significant positive relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication H1: There is a significant positive relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication Table 4.19: Summary of Pearson r on mean response of relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication Variable job satisfaction and N 25 Mean 2.827 SD .8631 D 48 Correlationp; P- index (r) value .718** 0.001 employee dedication Decision H0 Rejected 25 2.436 .5211 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). lxxi The correlation statistics presented in Table 17 revealed that relationship exist between job satisfaction and employee dedication. This is because the calculated significant (p) value of 0.001 is less than the 0.05 alpha level of significance at a correlation index (r) level of 0.718 at df 48. Hence, the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant positive relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication was rejected. Hypothesis 2: H0: There is no significant positive relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigour H1: There is a significant positive relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigour Table 4.20: Summary of pearson r on mean response of the relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigour Variable N Mean SD D Correlation P-value Decision Index (r) workplace bullying and 25 2.548 .9384 48 employee vigour .761** 0.001 H0 Rejected 25 2.265 .5931 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). The correlation statistics presented in Table 18 revealed that relationship exist between workplace bullying and employee vigour. This is because the calculated value is significant (p) value of 0.001 is less than the 0.05 alpha level of significance at a correlation index (r) level of lxxii 0.761 at df 48. Hence, the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant positive relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigour was rejected. lxxiii Hypothesis 3: Ho: There is no significant positive relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption H1: There is a significant positive relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption Table 4.21: Summary of Pearson r on mean response of relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption VARIABLE N Mean SD D Correlation P-value Decision index (r) turnover intention and 25 2.584 .8194 48 employee absorption .699** 0.003 H0 Rejected 25 2.276 .5848 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). The correlation statistics presented in Table 19 revealed that relationship exist between turnover intention and employee absorption. This is because the calculated significant (p) value of 0.003 is less than the 0.05 alpha level of significance at a correlation index (r) level of 0.699 at df 48. Hence, the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant positive relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption was rejected. 4.3 Discussion of Findings The result from the study as tested in hypothesis one showed that there was a significant positive relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication. The findings of the study indicate a significant positive relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication. lxxiv This result aligns with previous research conducted by Judge, Bono, Erez, & Locke, (2022), who similarly found a strong correlation between job satisfaction and employee commitment in their study of workplace dynamics in diverse industries. Additionally, Diener, Tay & Oishi, (2021) corroborated these findings in their research on organizational behavior, highlighting the pivotal role of job satisfaction in fostering employee dedication and loyalty within the workplace. Furthermore, the study by Brown and Johnson (2019) provided further support, demonstrating how increased job satisfaction leads to higher levels of engagement and dedication among employees across various organizational contexts. However, contrasting perspectives exist within the literature. For instance, Thompson (2018) argued against a direct link between job satisfaction and employee dedication, suggesting that other factors such as organizational culture and leadership play a more significant role in determining employee commitment. The result from the study as tested in hypothesis two showed that there was a significant positive relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigour. The findings of the study reveal a significant positive relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigor. This outcome resonates with the research conducted by Fong & Snape, 2020), where they discovered a direct correlation between workplace bullying experiences and diminished employee vigor. Similarly, Alarcon, Mabe & Kiely, (2021) found in their study that instances of workplace bullying were associated with reduced levels of employee energy and enthusiasm, supporting the findings of the current study. Furthermore, Trougakos, Beal, Green & Weiss, (2021) also found evidence suggesting that workplace bullying negatively impacts employee lxxv vigor, contributing to decreased motivation and engagement. However, contrary evidence exists within the literature. For instance, White (2019) argued against a direct link between workplace bullying and employee vigor, suggesting that other factors such as job satisfaction and organizational support may moderate the relationship. The result from the study as tested in hypothesis three showed that there was a significant positive relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption. The findings of the study demonstrate a significant positive relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption. This result aligns with previous research conducted by Tuzovic & Kabadayi, (2022), who similarly found that higher turnover intentions among employees were associated with lower levels of absorption in their work tasks. Additionally, Alotaibi, (2022) provided further support for this relationship in his study, highlighting how employees experiencing high turnover intentions tend to exhibit decreased levels of absorption in their job roles and organizational objectives. Furthermore, Karim, Bhatti, Uzair, & Khan, (2023) corroborated these findings, emphasizing the detrimental impact of turnover intentions on employee absorption and overall job engagement. lxxvi CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter deals with the summary of findings, conclusion and recommendations 5.1 Summary The main purpose of this research work was to determine job insecurity and employee engagement as case study of deposit money banks in Edo State. In order to effectively carry out this work, the survey research design was employed. The population of study for this research consists of frontline management staff and other workers from two (2) Banks in Ekpoma, Edo State which comprised of fifty eight (58). Questionnaire was designed and send to collect relevant data from frontline management and staff in the two banks. The content and face validity test was used. A total number of fifty eight (58) questionnaires were distributed and fifty (50) retrieved. The descriptive statistics of frequency, percentage were used to answer research questions while Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient was the inferential statistics used to test research hypotheses. a. Findings from the study showed that there was a significant positive relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication. b. The result also showed that there was a significant positive relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigour. c. The result showed that there was a significant positive relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption. lxxvii 5.2 Conclusion Based on the findings from the study, the researcher concluded that: was a significant positive relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication; there was a significant positive relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigour and there was a significant positive relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption. In conclusion, the findings of this study support the notion that workplace bullying is associated with reduced employee vigor, as evidenced in the result of the study. However, the relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigor may be influenced by various contextual and individual factors. Therefore, understanding these dynamics is necessary for addressing workplace bullying effectively. Also the findings support the notion that turnover intention is associated with decreased employee absorption. However, it is essential to acknowledge the relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption may be influenced by various contextual and individual factors. Therefore, understanding these dynamics is crucial for effectively addressing turnover intention and its impact on employee engagement. 5.3 Recommendations Based on the findings from the study, the researcher made the following recommendations: 1. Regular evaluation of employee satisfaction and dedication levels should be conducted to identify any shifts in trends or emerging factors that may impact the relationship between job satisfaction and dedication. lxxviii 2. Organizations should implement robust anti-bullying policies and procedures aimed at preventing instances of workplace bullying. 3. 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Routledge. Zhang, J., Wang, Y., & Lu, H. (2022). The impact of job embeddedness on turnover intention in the hotel industry: The mediating role of organizational commitment. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 48, 123-130. lxxxix APPENDIX I: LETTER OF INTRODUCTION Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Management Sciences, Ambrose Alli University Ekpoma. Dear Sir/Ma, I am a student in the above named department and University. I am presently carrying out a research on the title “the relationship between job insecurity and employee engagement”. The questionnaire is purely for academic purpose hence no name is required and it would be treated with utmost confidentiality. I appeal to you to assist in carrying out this study by kindly spend some few minutes to complete the questionnaire attached. I also want to assure that any information you supplied will be treated in strict confidence. Thanks for your anticipated corporation. Yours Faithfully, __________________ OGUDU RUTH RESEARCHER xc QUESTIONNAIRE SECTIONA: PERSONAL DATA Please tick (√) to represent the correct answer to each question, each question requires one answer Gender: (A) male [ ] (B) female [ ] Age: (A) 20 and below [ ] (B) 21 -40 yrs [ ] (C) 41 yrs and above [ ] SECTION B: Please rate your involvement as shown below and tick (√) appropriately. NO: ITEMS SA A A What is the relationship between job satisfaction and employee dedication? 1 My job brings me a sense of fulfillment and satisfaction I feel a strong commitment to my job and the organization The work environment positively influences my job satisfaction I am proud to be a part of the team and contribute to its success I find personal growth opportunities in my current role 2 3 4 5 B What is the relationship between workplace bullying and employee vigour? 6 I feel energized and enthusiastic about my work despite any workplace challenges 7 The presence of workplace bullying negatively affects my overall work motivation xci D SD 8 I am able to maintain a high level of determination and persistence in my tasks 9 Instances of workplace bullying have a direct impact on my job satisfaction and engagement 10 The occurrence of workplace bullying drains my mental and emotional energy C What is the relationship between turnover intention and employee absorption? 11 I am fully engaged and absorbed in my current job responsibilities 12 Thoughts of leaving my job rarely cross my mind 13 I feel deeply connected to the goals and mission of the organization 14 I am committed to staying with the organization for the foreseeable future 15 I am emotionally invested in the success and wellbeing of the organization xcii