Enoghase Itua Erasmus

HISTORICAL EVALUATION OF SOCIO-POLITICAL IMPACT OF BRITISH COLONIALISM IN BENIN CHAPTER ONE Historical Background Benin City, originally known as Edo, was once the capital of a pre-colonial African Empire located in what is now Southern Nigeria. The Benin Empire was one of the oldest and most highly developed states in West Africa, dating back to the 11th century. The Guinness Book of Records (1974 edition) described the walls of Benin City and its surrounding kingdom as the world’s largest earth works carried out prior to the mechanical era. According to estimate by the new scientist Fred Pearce, Benin City’s wall were at one point “four times longer than the Great Wall of China, and consumed a hundred times more material than the Great Pyramid of Cheops’.1 The Kingdom of Benin, located in what is now southern Nigeria, was a highly developed society that flourished long before the colonial period. Its history dates back to around 900 AD, with its peak during the 14th to 17th centuries. The kingdom was known for its impressive military strength, economic prosperity, advanced administrative system, and remarkable cultural achievements, particularly in art and urban planning. Benin’s influence extended far beyond its borders, making it one of the most powerful kingdoms in pre-colonial West Africa2. The Kingdom of Benin, one of the most influential empires in pre-colonial West Africa, originated from the migration of the Edo-speaking people to what is now southern Nigeria. The Edo people formed small communities, which eventually united under a central authority. Historical records and oral traditions suggest that the kingdom was established around 900 AD, with its first political structure emerging under the leadership of the Ogiso, or “ruler of the sky.” This early period in Benin's history marked the beginning of its political organization. However, the Ogiso dynasty was overthrown, leading to a time of ineffective leadership and internal struggles. Eventually, the Benin people rejected rule from Ife, and the kingdom began to emerge anew under the leadership of Prince Oramiyan's descendants. His son, Eweka I, is credited with laying the foundation for the second Benin Empire and is regarded as the first true king, or Oba, of Benin. Eweka I ascended the throne around the 12th century, initiating the consolidation of power that would characterize the Kingdom of Benin’s future3. Eweka I was believed to be a descendant of Oduduwa, the founder of Ife, which was another powerful kingdom in pre-colonial Nigeria. This connection to Ife played a crucial role in establishing political legitimacy for the Benin rulers, as the royal family claimed divine origins, which was important for maintaining authority. Over the centuries, the Kingdom of Benin expanded both its political influence and territorial control, becoming one of the most powerful states in West Africa. By the 15th century, under Oba Ewuare the Great, the kingdom expanded significantly through military conquests and strategic alliances. Ewuare is recognized for transforming Benin into a powerful empire, strengthening its administration, and spearheading reforms that would define its golden age. His reign -) marked a high point for Benin, with the kingdom gaining fame for its military prowess, urban planning, and artistic achievements4. Geographically, the Kingdom of Benin was positioned in a tropical rainforest region between the Niger River to the east and the western borders of present-day Ghana. This strategic location, consisting of dense forests, marshes, and savannas, significantly impacted its economy and culture. The natural barriers created by these forests and waterways provided security, enabling the kingdom to grow and thrive without the frequent threat of invasions from external forces. The area’s natural resources allowed for the kingdom to remain independent and expand its influence over neighboring regions5. Benin City, the kingdom's capital, became an important urban center due to its location at the crossroads of various trade routes. It facilitated both inland and coastal trade with other West African states and European merchants, especially the Portuguese starting in the 15th century. The kingdom was particularly involved in the trade of ivory, palm oil, and later, slaves. The geographical layout also played a crucial role in the kingdom's military strength. Dense forests and the extensive network of rivers made it difficult for foreign invaders to penetrate the kingdom, further protecting it from external threats. Additionally, the natural environment provided resources for the construction of Benin's renowned defensive walls. These walls, described as some of the largest earthworks in the world, stretched for hundreds of kilometers, serving both as a defense mechanism and a symbol of the kingdom’s wealth and organizational capabilities6. The Kingdom of Benin's climate, characterized by a tropical pattern with distinct wet and dry seasons, greatly influenced its agricultural practices and the kingdom’s overall development. The wet season, from March to October, ensured that the soil remained fertile, allowing for the cultivation of various crops such as yams, maize, and vegetables. Agriculture was the foundation of the kingdom’s economy, providing food for the population and raw materials for trade. The availability of surplus food supported a growing population and contributed to the growth of urban centers like Benin City7. The region's climate also supported the growth of dense forests, which were essential for the kingdom's renowned artistic traditions. The forests provided timber for construction and raw materials for the creation of art, particularly wood carvings and bronze works. Benin artisans were particularly skilled in metalwork and ivory carving, creating intricate pieces that reflected the kingdom's cultural richness. These works were not only decorative but also had religious and political significance, often depicting the kingdom’s rulers and important historical events. The forests’ abundance allowed the kingdom to trade these valuable crafts with other societies, further boosting its economy8. The vegetation of the Kingdom of Benin was diverse, including dense tropical rainforests, savannas, and wetlands. The rich biodiversity of these regions had a profound effect on the kingdom’s economy and cultural practices. The forests not only provided timber for building and crafting but also offered materials like raffia and palm leaves for making textiles and baskets. The forests’ abundance of plant and animal life was reflected in Benin’s artwork, particularly in the intricate carvings of animals and plants. These works of art not only showcased the kingdom’s artistry but also celebrated the power and wealth of the Oba (king) and his leadership. The savannas, though less densely forested, were equally important to the kingdom's economy. These open grasslands were used for grazing livestock, such as cattle, which were a vital source of food and wealth for the people of Benin. The savannas also provided areas for growing millet and sorghum, which were staple crops in the region. The variety of vegetation in the kingdom allowed for a range of agricultural activities, contributing to its economic stability9. Spiritual beliefs and cultural practices in Benin were closely tied to the land and its natural elements. The people of Benin worshipped natural forces and deities associated with the earth, forests, and rivers. Many of their religious practices were centered on these beliefs, with the kingdom’s art often depicting these natural forces. The spiritual connection to the land influenced the kingdom’s agricultural practices, social organization, and cultural identity10.The culture of the Kingdom of Benin was complex, diverse, and deeply rooted in religious and artistic traditions. The Benin people practiced a polytheistic religion, worshipping numerous gods and ancestral spirits, with Olokun, the god of the sea, being one of the most important deities. Olokun was believed to bring prosperity, particularly through trade and agriculture. The Oba, who acted as both the political and religious leader of the kingdom, played an essential role in maintaining the spiritual and political well-being of Benin. The kingdom's artistic culture was also highly developed, with its famous bronze and ivory sculptures showcasing intricate designs. These artworks, often created to honor the Obas and their ancestors, included detailed plaques and statues that depicted important events like military victories and royal life. The craftsmanship behind these artworks reflects the skill of the Benin artisans, who were organized into guilds and worked under the patronage of the Oba. Benin's urban planning was another remarkable feature of the kingdom11. The capital city, Benin City, was described by European visitors as one of the most impressive cities in Africa, particularly for its well-planned streets, public squares, and grand royal palace. The city was protected by a series of defensive walls, known as the Walls of Benin, which were among the largest earthworks in the world at the time. These walls and moats were not only military defenses but also symbolic of the kingdom’s strength and organizational capacity. The city’s quarters were carefully organized, with designated areas for artisans, traders, and members of the royal family. Agriculture was central to Benin's economy, with crops like yams, maize, and cassava being staple foods. The fertile land in the region supported large-scale agriculture, which provided sustenance for the population and supported trade with neighboring states and European merchants. Benin also had a flourishing craft industry, producing textiles, pottery, and metal goods that were highly valued in both local and international markets12. The arrival of Europeans in the late 15th century, particularly the Portuguese, added a new dimension to Benin's culture. The Portuguese established trade relationships with the kingdom, exchanging textiles, firearms, and other goods for Benin’s ivory, pepper, and slaves. This trade significantly enriched Benin, both financially and culturally, as European goods and ideas were incorporated into Benin’s existing traditions. However, this period of European contact also marked the beginning of a darker chapter for the kingdom, as it became increasingly involved in the transatlantic slave trade, which had long-lasting impacts on its society13. Politically, the Kingdom of Benin was highly centralized, with the Oba at the top of the hierarchy. The Oba was not only the king but also regarded as a divine figure, with the authority to make laws, administer justice, and command the military. This centralization of power was essential in maintaining order and unity in the kingdom. The Oba’s authority was bolstered by the belief that he was a direct descendant of the gods, which added spiritual legitimacy to his rule. Beneath the Oba was a council of chiefs known as the Uzama, which advised the king and helped govern the kingdom. These chiefs held significant influence and were responsible for overseeing various aspects of governance, including land management, taxation, and religious ceremonies14. The Kingdom of Benin was divided into provinces, each ruled by local leaders known as Enogies. Appointed by the Oba, the Enogies were responsible for ensuring the enforcement of the kingdom’s laws, collecting taxes, and maintaining order within their regions. The military was another key part of Benin’s political organization. The kingdom had a highly trained army capable of defending its borders and expanding its territory. The Oba served as the supreme commander, and the army was organized into units, each led by a noble or chief who maintained discipline and led the troops in battle. Military success played a major role in the kingdom’s expansion, particularly during the golden age under Oba Ewuare the Great15. Justice in Benin was a centralized system, with the Oba serving as the highest judge. However, much of the everyday administration of justice was handled by the chiefs and local rulers. These officials presided over local courts and were responsible for resolving disputes. The legal system was based on customary law, derived from the traditions of the Edo people. Punishments for crimes ranged from fines and restitution to exile or even execution, depending on the severity of the offense. Benin's diplomatic relations, especially with European powers such as Portugal, were vital for securing access to goods like firearms, which helped maintain the kingdom's military strength. The Oba’s court was renowned for its grandeur, and foreign visitors were often impressed by the wealth and organization of the kingdom. The strategic diplomacy that Benin maintained helped protect its political interests and strengthened its position in the region, while also allowing the kingdom to benefit from the global trade networks that developed during the Age of Exploration16. Agriculture was also the backbone of the Kingdom of Benin's economy, playing an essential role in its social structure and overall development. The fertile soil and tropical climate of the region allowed the people of Benin to grow a wide variety of crops, which supported the population and contributed to the kingdom's economic growth. The main crops cultivated in the kingdom included yams, maize, cassava, and plantains. Among these, yams were particularly important, as they were a staple food and a key trade commodity. They were grown on a large scale, with farming organized in a way that involved entire communities in the planting, care, and harvesting. This system not only ensured a steady food supply but also helped in the kingdom’s economic expansion by promoting labor specialization and organization in agriculture. Maize and cassava, introduced to the region from the Americas, were also significant crops in Benin17. Cassava was especially valued because it thrived even in poor soil and could withstand drought, making it an important crop for food security. Maize, similarly, was well-suited to the kingdom’s climate and became a vital part of the diet. By growing these resilient crops, the kingdom was able to mitigate the risk of famine during periods of drought or poor harvests. The cultivation of these crops allowed Benin to sustain its growing population and provided surplus produce that could be traded with neighboring regions. In addition to crop farming, animal husbandry also played an important role in Benin's agricultural economy. The people of Benin raised cattle, goats, and poultry for food, and they also used animals for trade. The by-products of animals, such as milk, hides, and manure, were valuable for both local consumption and trade. The livestock industry, therefore, contributed not only to the kingdom’s food supply but also to the wealth of the Benin Kingdom by providing materials for crafts and other goods 18. The agricultural system of the Kingdom of Benin was highly organized. Land was considered a communal resource, but its usage was managed by local leaders under the authority of the Oba, the king of Benin. Village chiefs and regional leaders regulated agricultural activities and allocated land for farming. Farmers were expected to contribute a portion of their harvest to the state, which could be redistributed during times of scarcity or used to support the royal court and military activities. This organized system of agricultural production played a key role in the kingdom’s social and economic stability19. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Benin became involved in the transatlantic slave trade, supplying enslaved individuals to European traders in exchange for firearms, textiles, alcohol, and other goods. The kingdom's participation in the slave trade played a significant role in its economic prosperity, but it also destabilized neighboring regions and had lasting negative effects on the kingdom’s society. Slaves were typically captured during military raids or acquired from neighboring states, and this trade became an important source of wealth for the kingdom, particularly as European demand for slaves grew20. The industries in Benin were closely tied to its agricultural and trade activities. Metalworking, for example, relied on the importation of copper and other metals, which were used to create the renowned Benin Bronzes. These bronzes depicted various scenes from the kingdom’s history, religion, and royal life. They became symbols of Benin’s cultural and artistic achievements and were highly sought after by traders. The production of these artworks required significant skill, and the artisans were often part of specialized guilds that operated under the patronage of the Oba21. Textile production was another important industry in Benin. The people of the kingdom wove cloth from locally grown cotton, which was used to make clothing for both the royal family and the general population. The kingdom’s textile industry was highly developed, with specialized weavers producing fabrics that were not only functional but also ornamental. These textiles were also traded with neighboring regions, contributing to the kingdom's commercial success. Pottery and wood carving were additional industries that played a central role in the daily life of the kingdom. Pottery was used for cooking, storage, and religious ceremonies, while wood carving was employed to produce tools, household items, and religious figures. The artisans of Benin were highly skilled in creating both functional and ceremonial items, and their work was integral to the kingdom’s cultural identity and economic life22. Benin's industrial sectors, including metalworking, textiles, pottery, and wood carving, were key to its cultural and economic development. These industries not only generated wealth but also reflected the kingdom's values, with many products used in religious ceremonies, royal rituals, and public displays of power. The combination of agricultural productivity, a robust trade network, and highly developed industries allowed the Kingdom of Benin to maintain its power and influence for several centuries. Its ability to generate surplus food and goods, combined with its strategic location, enabled it to expand its territory and maintain a strong centralized authority under the leadership of the Oba23. ENDNOTES 1. 4. Osabon, The History of Benin Kingdom C1500 – 1900AD Benin City 1996 P.25. 2. 5. Osabon, 28 3. P.J. Darling, Archeology and History of Benin Kingdom Southern West Nigeria: (B.A.R. Britain 1984) P.6. 4. A.A. Otorwhen, “Edo Speaking Peoples and their neighbours” in Journal of social developments in Nigeria (1986) 3:2 P.15. 5. Jacob U. Egharevba. A Short History of Benin. Ibadan University Press, (1968), 55. 6. A. F. C. Ryder. Benin and the Europeans,-. Longmans, (1969), 72. 7. Aribidesi Adisa Usman. The Benin Kingdom: Conquest and Resistance in Pre-Colonial Africa. Routledge, (2017), 102. 8. Peter M. Roese. "Benin Prehistory: The Oral Traditions and Chronology." African Arts, (2020), 34-36. 9. O. B. Osadolor. "The Benin Kingdom: A History of its Rise, Development, and Influence." Journal of African History, (2021), 89-90. 10. Osadolor, 92 11. E. B. Eweka, Evolution of Benin Chieftaincy Titles, Benin 1972, p. 2. 12. P.A. Onosolease,. The Meaning of Edo History, (Lagos Univ. Press Lagos, 1999) 13. Ivbiotu, Amadasun. Edo People and Culture in Pre-colonial Period: A Revisit of Culture and Traditions. (Lagos Akin Press Idumota, 1993) p.16-21 14. Flora S. Kaplan. Images of Power: Art of the Benin Kingdom. British Museum Press, (2018), 48-49. 15. W. Patrick, Darling. "Archaeology and Benin History." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History, (2019), 66-67. 16. M. Dmitri, Bondarenko. "The Benin Kingdom: Between Tradition and Modernity." Journal of Historical Sociology, (2018), 234-236. 17. P.G. Ben-Amos. The Art of Benin. British Museum Press, (1995), 87-88. 18. R. E. Bradbury. The Benin Kingdom and the Edo-Speaking Peoples of South-Western Nigeria. International African Institute, (1973), 192-193. 19. O. Ebohon. The Spiritual Beliefs of the Benin People. African Spiritual Studies Journal, (2011), 18(2), 45-61. 20. S. Idahosa,. The Art and Craftsmanship of Benin Kingdom. Benin Cultural Journal, -), 23-37. 21. A. Ogunmodede. Health and Medicine in Benin. African Health Research Journal, (2008), 21(4), 81-95. 22. A. Okpoko,. The Defensive Walls of Benin City. Journal of African Architecture, (1995), 10(2), 12-29. 23. J. U. Egharevba, 70. CHAPTER TWO 2.1 British Colonialism in Benin The British colonial experience in the Benin Kingdom, now located in Edo State, Nigeria, represents a significant chapter in the history of the region and Africa as a whole. The British Empire's encroachment upon the Benin Kingdom was a gradual process that ultimately culminated in a violent and destructive conquest in 1897. This historical account of the British involvement in Benin delves into the events leading up to British colonization, the socio-political conditions in the kingdom before the British arrival, the colonial strategies employed, and the consequences of imperial rule on the region. The period before the arrival of the British in Benin was marked by a flourishing kingdom with rich political structures, cultural advancements, and economic prosperity, all of which were severely impacted by British imperialism1. Before the British became involved in the Benin Kingdom, the area had a long and prosperous history dating back centuries. The Benin Kingdom, under the rule of the Oba, had a complex and centralized political system that governed an intricate society. The monarchy was the heart of the kingdom's governance, and the Oba held both political and religious authority. The kingdom was noted for its strong military, which had successfully defended the kingdom from external threats for many years2. Benin was also renowned for its artistic achievements, particularly the creation of the famous Benin Bronzes, which are among the most important works of art in African history. Economically, Benin had thriving trade routes that extended beyond the shores of West Africa, engaging in trade with the Portuguese, Dutch, and later the British, trading in goods such as ivory, palm oil, and slaves. The kingdom's autonomy and sophistication stood in stark contrast to the ambitions of European colonial powers, who sought to expand their territories and gain control over lucrative African resources3. The initial contact between the British and the Benin Kingdom came in the early 19th century through trade. British merchants, primarily involved in the transatlantic slave trade, began to establish contact with the Benin Kingdom in the 1820s. However, their interest in the region expanded when they began to focus on palm oil production, which became an important commodity for the British during the Industrial Revolution. The British were drawn to Benin’s strategic position along the coast and its rich natural resources. The British missionaries, traders, and explorers also sought to gain influence in the region, often using religion and commerce as tools of cultural exchange. The British gradually extended their presence in Benin, forming trade alliances and beginning to influence the local political structures. However, the British relationship with Benin became more contentious as they sought greater control over trade routes and access to land4. The tension between the Benin Kingdom and the British escalated in the late 19th century, particularly as the British sought to dominate the region for imperial and economic reasons. By the 1890s, British pressure on the Benin Kingdom increased, culminating in the events that led to the infamous punitive expedition of 1897. The British government, under the guise of protecting British interests, sought to establish direct control over the kingdom's resources and trade routes5. Tensions had been brewing for years, and an incident in which a British trade mission was attacked by the Benin military provided the catalyst for the invasion. In 1897, a British expedition led by Sir Henry Rawson was dispatched to Benin City, the heart of the kingdom, to assert British dominance. The British justification for the invasion was the need for retribution after the killing of several British citizens, although this attack was seen by many as a result of the increasing friction over British trade demands and the imposition of British influence6. The British military campaign against the Benin Kingdom in 1897 was swift and brutal. With their superior weaponry, the British forces easily defeated the Benin military, which was outmatched and underprepared. The British troops, numbering around 1,200, quickly overwhelmed the defenders of Benin City, which had once been a thriving metropolis of over 100,000 inhabitants. The invasion saw the destruction of the city, with the British looting valuable cultural artifacts, including the world-famous Benin Bronzes. These bronzes, which had been meticulously crafted over centuries by Benin artisans, were taken by the British as spoils of war and are now housed in various museums and private collections across Europe. In addition to the loss of its priceless cultural heritage, the Benin Kingdom was left in ruins, with many of its people displaced and subjected to British rule. The Oba of Benin, Ovonramwen Nogbaisi, was captured and exiled to Calabar, where he died in 1914, symbolizing the final destruction of the Benin Kingdom’s political autonomy7. Following the conquest of Benin, the British established a colonial administration that effectively dismantled the kingdom’s political structure. The British employed a system of indirect rule, whereby local leaders, including the chiefs of Benin, were co-opted into the British system of governance. The British maintained control over key aspects of governance, including taxation, law enforcement, and land distribution, while the local chiefs served as intermediaries between the colonial authorities and the local population. This system of indirect rule, which had been used by the British in other parts of Nigeria, was designed to keep costs low while maintaining control over vast territories. However, it also eroded the power of traditional leaders, leading to tensions between the local population and the colonial government8. The socio-political landscape of Benin underwent significant transformation during the colonial period. British colonial policies focused on the extraction of resources, particularly palm oil, rubber, and cocoa, which were grown in the fertile lands of the Benin region. These resources were extracted to fuel British industrial growth, with little regard for the welfare of the local population. The British imposed taxes on the Benin people, often forcing them into forced labor to work on plantations and in mines. The economic system was geared toward the benefit of the British Empire, leading to widespread economic hardship for the local people. Many traditional systems of agriculture were abandoned in favor of cash crop production, which disrupted local food systems and led to a decline in food security for many Benin families9. In addition to the economic changes, the British colonial period in Benin also saw significant cultural changes. British missionaries had been active in the region, spreading Christianity and undermining indigenous religious practices. The British imposed Western-style education, which prioritized literacy in English and taught Western values while sidelining the traditional education systems that had been in place for centuries. This shift in education led to a growing class divide in Benin society, where those who adopted Western practices and beliefs gained access to power and economic opportunities, while those who maintained their traditional ways were marginalized. The influence of Christianity and Western education contributed to the decline of traditional Benin cultural practices, including the veneration of the Oba and other religious rites10. The colonial period also had profound effects on the land tenure system in Benin. Before British colonialism, the land in Benin was primarily controlled by the Oba and the local chiefs, who governed the distribution of land among the people. However, with the advent of British colonialism, land was expropriated by the colonial authorities, and much of it was redistributed to British settlers and companies. This led to widespread displacement, as indigenous people were forced off their lands, which had been central to their economic and cultural lives. The loss of land was one of the most devastating consequences of colonialism, as it disrupted traditional agricultural practices and undermined the economic self-sufficiency of many Benin families11. The legacy of British colonialism in the Benin Kingdom can still be felt today. The imposition of colonial rule altered the political, social, and economic fabric of Benin, and the impacts of colonialism continue to affect the region in various ways. The destruction of Benin’s political autonomy, the loss of its cultural heritage, and the economic exploitation of its resources all contributed to the long-lasting effects of British colonialism on the Benin people. While Benin has made significant strides in rebuilding its cultural identity and economic infrastructure, the shadows of colonialism continue to loom large. The painful history of British colonialism in Benin serves as a reminder of the enduring impact of imperialism on Africa and the need for continued efforts toward social, political, and economic justice12. 2.2 British Colonial Policies on political structure and governance of the Benin Kingdom The British colonial policies significantly altered the political structure and governance of the Benin Kingdom, which had previously operated under a highly organized and centralized system of governance. Before the British conquest of Benin in 1897, the kingdom was a powerful and autonomous state with a well-established political structure. The Benin Kingdom, under the leadership of the Oba, had a complex system of governance that was deeply integrated into the cultural, religious, and social fabric of the people. The British colonial policies, however, dismantled this system and imposed their own governance structure, resulting in profound changes to the political landscape of the kingdom. This historical discussion examines how British colonialism reshaped the political structure of Benin and the consequences for its traditional systems of governance13. Before the British intrusion, the Benin Kingdom was governed by the Oba, who wielded both secular and religious authority. The Oba's power was supported by a hierarchy of chiefs and elders who oversaw various administrative functions in the kingdom. The political structure was organized into various levels of governance, from the central authority of the Oba to the village heads and elders who managed local affairs. This decentralized structure allowed for a wide degree of autonomy within the kingdom while maintaining cohesion under the leadership of the Oba. The kingdom’s governance system was also characterized by its system of councils, which included both male and female members, as well as the use of traditional law to maintain order. These political structures and systems of governance operated effectively for centuries, ensuring the kingdom's stability and prosperity14. British colonial interest in the Benin Kingdom began in the 19th century, primarily through the growth of trade in palm oil and other resources. The British initially engaged with Benin through trade, establishing diplomatic and economic relations in the early 1800s. However, British influence grew over time as they sought to expand their control over the Niger Delta region and its lucrative resources. By the late 19th century, the British were actively seeking to exert greater control over Benin’s political structure. The British wanted to ensure that they could control the trade routes, the resources, and the region’s political affairs. In their attempt to extend their colonial reach, they began to pressure the Benin Kingdom for more direct access to its political and economic systems15. The tipping point in the British involvement in Benin’s political system came in 1892, when a British delegation was attacked in Benin. This event was used by the British as a pretext to justify military action against the kingdom. The British utilized a combination of diplomacy, trade pressures, and military threats to advance their political agenda in the region. Despite initial resistance from the Benin leadership, the British launched a punitive expedition against Benin City in 1897, which marked the beginning of a significant alteration in the kingdom’s political structure. The invasion led to the capture of the Oba, Ovonramwen Nogbaisi, and the exile of the monarch to Calabar, thus bringing an end to the traditional governance system and signaling the beginning of British colonial rule16. The British imposition of colonial governance on Benin was initially marked by the establishment of indirect rule, a policy that sought to maintain the appearance of local governance while asserting British control over key political and administrative functions. The British colonial authorities did not completely dismantle the traditional political structures of Benin; rather, they sought to co-opt local leaders into the new colonial administration. The Oba, despite being exiled, was replaced by a British-appointed ruler, and the traditional councils of chiefs were retained but placed under the control of British officials. This system of indirect rule was designed to maintain local order while allowing the British to extract resources and control political power through local intermediaries17. However, the British indirect rule system did not work as seamlessly as the colonial authorities had hoped. While the British maintained some of the traditional political institutions, they increasingly sought to centralize power in the hands of the colonial administration, which weakened the authority of traditional leaders. The system of governance in Benin was now subject to the policies of the British Empire, which prioritized the extraction of resources and the enforcement of colonial laws over the autonomy of local governance. The traditional leadership in Benin, which had once been based on respect for the Oba and local chiefs, became subordinated to the colonial structures, resulting in a loss of political legitimacy among the people. This shift in governance led to tensions between the British colonial authorities and the local population, who had grown resentful of the erosion of their traditional political power18. The British imposition of indirect rule was further compounded by the introduction of new administrative divisions in the Benin region. The British established new districts, changing the boundaries and structure of local governance. The creation of new districts and the appointment of British district officers to oversee them undermined the authority of the traditional political structures. The chiefs who had once governed the people were now subject to the decisions of the district officers, who often had little understanding or respect for the local customs and traditions. This led to a growing sense of alienation among the Benin people, who felt that their political structures were being dismantled by an external force that had no regard for their cultural heritage19. The colonial policies also had a profound impact on the role of women in Benin’s political system. Before the arrival of the British, women held significant political power, particularly in the form of the Iyase, the female chiefs, and other female political leaders who contributed to the governance of the kingdom. Women played key roles in maintaining social order, administering justice, and overseeing agricultural production. However, under British colonial rule, the role of women in politics was diminished, as the British sought to impose a patriarchal system that sidelined women from governance. This change in the political structure reflected broader shifts in colonial governance, which often disregarded the gendered aspects of traditional political systems20. The introduction of Western legal systems by the British also had a significant effect on the governance of Benin. The traditional Benin legal system, which was based on customary law and overseen by the Oba and local chiefs, was replaced by British-style courts and legal institutions. The British legal system imposed new laws, many of which were designed to serve the interests of the colonial authorities rather than the local population. This shift in the legal system disrupted the traditional mechanisms of justice, which had been integral to the governance structure of Benin. Local disputes, once settled by customary law, were now brought before British courts, where the outcomes were often unfavorable to the Benin people21. The political changes introduced by the British also had long-term effects on the governance structures of Benin. The centralization of power in the hands of the colonial administration meant that traditional governance systems were undermined, and the autonomy of local leaders was severely restricted. The people of Benin were now subject to the decisions of distant colonial authorities, who often had little understanding of the region’s customs or governance practices. The British policies of taxation, forced labor, and resource extraction created tensions that further weakened the legitimacy of the colonial government. These tensions culminated in various forms of resistance, including riots, protests, and other forms of civil disobedience, which were often violently suppressed by the British authorities22. Despite these challenges, the British colonial policies in Benin had lasting effects on the political structure of the region. The legacy of indirect rule, the erosion of traditional leadership, and the imposition of new legal and administrative systems fundamentally changed the political landscape of the Benin Kingdom. The traditional governance structures that had once been the foundation of Benin’s political system were replaced with a new colonial order that prioritized British interests. This shift in governance not only disrupted the political autonomy of the Benin Kingdom but also set the stage for future political struggles in post-colonial Nigeria. The effects of British colonial policies on the political structure of Benin continue to be felt in the modern-day political landscape of Edo State and Nigeria as a whole23. The history of British colonialism in Benin is a poignant reminder of the disruptive and enduring effects of imperialism on indigenous political structures. The changes imposed by the British in the Benin Kingdom have left a lasting legacy, which continues to influence the political dynamics of the region. Understanding the impact of British colonial policies on the political governance of Benin is crucial to understanding the broader history of Nigeria and the legacy of colonialism in Africa24. 2.3 British Colonial legal and judicial systems on the traditional justice mechanisms in Benin The British colonial legal and judicial systems had a profound impact on the traditional justice mechanisms in the Benin Kingdom, fundamentally altering the way justice was administered in the region. Prior to British intervention, Benin had a well-established system of traditional justice based on customary law, which was deeply intertwined with the kingdom’s political and cultural life. This system of justice was overseen by the Oba (king), chiefs, and elders, who functioned as judges in various tribunals across the kingdom. These local courts handled disputes, criminal cases, and other forms of conflict resolution according to customary norms and practices that had been in place for centuries. The British, however, sought to impose their own legal system upon the Benin Kingdom, which not only undermined the traditional mechanisms of justice but also redefined the roles of local leaders and the processes by which justice was administered25. Before British colonial rule, the Benin Kingdom had a highly organized and codified system of justice. The Oba, as the central authority figure, was the highest judicial officer in the kingdom. His power was supported by a network of chiefs and elders who presided over local courts in their respective domains. The system of justice in Benin was largely based on customary law, which was orally transmitted and reflected the values, beliefs, and social norms of the community. Disputes were usually resolved through mediation, negotiation, and adjudication, and decisions were made with the aim of restoring harmony to the community. The concept of collective responsibility was central to the system, where the community, rather than individuals alone, was seen as responsible for maintaining order26. These tribunals operated efficiently and were seen as legitimate because they were aligned with the cultural and spiritual life of the people, often incorporating ritual elements that reinforced their authority. The arrival of British colonial authorities in the late 19th century marked a significant turning point in the judicial system of Benin. The British, under the guise of promoting law and order, began to impose their own legal structures on the region, undermining the traditional mechanisms of justice that had served the kingdom for centuries. The imposition of British rule in 1897, following the punitive expedition that led to the conquest of Benin, resulted in the exile of the Oba and the dismantling of the existing political and judicial system. As part of the British colonial takeover, the British began introducing their own legal system, based on English common law, which replaced many of the customary practices of the Benin Kingdom. This process of legal colonization had long-lasting effects on the administration of justice in the region, leading to a complete transformation of how legal disputes were resolved27. The British colonial legal system was introduced in Benin with the establishment of courts that were based on English legal principles, which were foreign to the traditional practices of the Benin people. The British colonialists set up a hierarchical system of courts, including district courts, magistrate courts, and ultimately, the Supreme Court, all of which operated under British law. The introduction of these courts was accompanied by the establishment of new legal codes that replaced traditional laws. This was done with the aim of centralizing legal authority under British control and ensuring that all legal matters were adjudicated according to colonial standards, rather than customary practices. The new colonial courts were presided over by British judges or expatriates who had little or no understanding of the local customs, values, or cultural context of the Benin people28. One of the most significant impacts of the British colonial legal system was the replacement of traditional adjudicators such as the Oba, chiefs, and elders—with British-appointed judges and administrators. The role of the Oba in the judicial process was particularly affected. Before colonial rule, the Oba had the ultimate authority in all matters of justice, and his decisions were final. The British, however, rendered the Oba's judicial authority obsolete by setting up new courts where British law was applied. The colonial administration not only imposed these new judicial bodies but also replaced the traditional court system with one that favored the British system of hierarchy and legal formalities. In essence, the British legal system disregarded the communal and restorative nature of the Benin justice system, which prioritized reconciliation and social harmony, in favor of a more punitive and individualistic legal approach29. Furthermore, the British colonial judicial system was built upon a foundation that favored colonial interests, which often meant that justice was not administered fairly to the local population. The British legal system was designed to maintain colonial authority and protect British economic and political interests. This became evident in the way laws were applied to matters of land ownership, trade, and even local governance, where the interests of the colonizers took precedence over the needs of the indigenous population. For instance, the British introduced land tenure systems that undermined the communal landownership system in Benin, which was based on traditional customs. Under British rule, land was often privatized, and the rights of local people were disregarded in favor of British settlers and businesses30. The British imposition of their legal system also had a significant impact on the social fabric of Benin society. Traditional forms of justice, such as the use of oracles, spiritual rites, and communal reconciliation, were gradually displaced by a legal system that was foreign to the people. The Benin people had long relied on a combination of customary law and spiritual practices in resolving disputes. For example, the use of the "Odu," a ritual object, was integral to the adjudication of serious matters, and trials often involved consultations with spiritual leaders or the performance of ritualistic acts. These practices were seen as legitimate sources of justice in the pre-colonial Benin Kingdom. However, the British legal system not only disregarded these practices but also sought to criminalize and suppress them, creating a rift between the people and their traditional systems of justice31. The establishment of British courts was also accompanied by the introduction of British-trained legal professionals, who were tasked with implementing the new system. This included the recruitment of local legal officers, interpreters, and clerks who were trained in British legal norms. However, many of these individuals, although familiar with the local language and customs, were often caught between two worlds: they were expected to enforce foreign legal principles while also navigating the complex realities of local traditions. The result was a system of dual justice where the British legal system coexisted, often uneasily, with the traditional forms of justice that remained in place, especially in rural areas32. While the British legal system supplanted much of the traditional justice machinery, it was not without its challenges. Resistance to British legal authority was widespread, particularly in the more remote parts of Benin, where people continued to rely on traditional forms of dispute resolution. The British colonial administration, recognizing the challenges of imposing an alien legal system, often made concessions by allowing the continued operation of some traditional courts, but these courts were now subject to colonial oversight. The British authorities were keen to maintain a façade of legitimacy, allowing the local population to believe that their customary systems were still functioning. However, in reality, the traditional courts were now secondary to the colonial judiciary, and many of their decisions were subject to approval by British officials33. Despite the profound changes brought by British colonial rule, the traditional justice mechanisms in Benin were not entirely erased. Over time, elements of customary law began to re-enter the legal process, particularly after Nigeria gained independence in 1960. The legacy of British colonialism, however, left a lasting mark on the legal and judicial systems in Benin, particularly in terms of the formalization of law and the centralized control of justice. The introduction of British-style courts, legal codes, and judges set a precedent for how justice would be administered in the post-colonial period. Even though the post-colonial Nigerian state has sought to incorporate some traditional forms of justice into its legal system, the dominance of Western-style legal frameworks remains a legacy of the British colonial experience34. The influence of British colonial legal systems on the traditional justice mechanisms of the Benin Kingdom represents a significant chapter in the region’s history, one that reflects the broader trends of imperialism and its impact on indigenous systems of governance. The imposition of British law and courts not only disrupted the cultural and judicial systems of the Benin people but also redefined the very notion of justice in the kingdom. While the legacy of these colonial policies continues to be felt today, the resilience of Benin’s traditional justice mechanisms remains a testament to the enduring strength of indigenous systems of governance and law35. ENDNOTES 1. D.U. Edebiri. Benin Historical Essays. (Benin City: Allen Prints, 2005), 45-78. 2. P.A. Igbafe. British Rule in Benin-: Direct or Indirect?, in Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 3, 4 (1967), 701-717. 3. P.A. Igbafe. Benin under British Administration: The Impact of Colonial Rule on the African Kingdom-. (London: Longman, 1979), 112-210. 4. P.A. Igbafe, 212 5. J. U. Egharevba. A Short History of Benin. Ibadan University Press, (1968), 55. 6. J. U. Egharevba, 61 7. A. F. C. Ryder. Benin and the Europeans,-. Longmans, (1969), 72. 8. Oral interview with Mr. Omigie Imiavan. Age, 78 years. 21st December, 2024. 9. Oral interview with Mr. Omoike Iyekekpolor. Age, 80 years. 21st December, 2024. 10. P.A. Igbafe. The Nemesis of Power: Agho Obaseki and Benin Politics. (Ibadan: Macmillan Nigeria, 1991), 89-143. 11. M.B.E. Macrae Simpson. A Political Intelligence Report on the Benin Division of the Benin Province. (Benin City: Ministry of Local Government, 1936), 32-67. 12. H.F. Marshall. Intelligence Report on Benin City. (Benin City: Ministry of Local Government, 1939), 21-56. 13. O.S.B. Omoregie. Great Benin 2: The Age of Odionwere (600-900). (Benin City: NERASO, 1997a), 15-59. 14. N.O. Omozusi. The Benin Kingdom: A Century After British Invasion. (Benin City: Mufti International Services, 1997), 77-134. 15. O.B. Osadolor. The Military System of Benin Kingdom:-. (Hamburg: Staats-und Universitatsbibliothek Carl von Ossiestzky, 2001), 99-186. 16. U. Usuanlele. British Colonial Administration, Development of Islam and Islamic Education in a Non-Muslim Society: The Benin Division (Nigeria) Experience-, in Contemporary Journal of African Studies, 2, 2 (2014), 65-96. 17. J.O.E. Sagay. Benin Kingdom and the British Invasion. (Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd, 1970), 51-102. 18. O. B. Osadolor. "The Benin Kingdom: A History of its Rise, Development, and Influence." Journal of African History, (2021), 89-90. 19. Flora S. Kaplan. Images of Power: Art of the Benin Kingdom. British Museum Press, (2018), 48-49. 20. J.I. Osagie & L.E. Otoide. Colonial Rule and Industrialization in Esan, Benin Province, Nigeria: A Case Study of Institutional Adaptation, in African Research Review, 9, 1 (2015), 73-94. 21. Oral Interview with Mr. Osagieduwa. Age, 82 years. 2nd December, 2024. 22. Oral Interview with Mr. Osagieduwa. 23. Oral interview with Mr. Osakpawan Eseosa. Age, 76 years. 21st December 2024. 24. Oral interview with Mr. Osazee Egogo. Age, 79 years. 21st December, 2024. 25. L. Otoide. Prelude to the British ‘Punitive Expedition’ to Benin: An Analysis of the Gallwey Treaty of 1897. (Asmara: Africa World Press, 2005), 121-178. 26. E.V. Odiahi. The Origin and Development of the Guild of Bronze Casters of Benin Kingdom up to 1914, in AFRREV IJAH: An International Journal of Arts and Humanities, 6, 1 (2017), 176-187. 27. S.O. Idahosa, J.A. Onimhawo & S.I. Ikhidero. Reparation: A Moral Justice for Africa: The Benin (Nigeria) in Perspective, in Vestnik RUDN. International Relations, 17, 2 (2017), 301-311. 28. P.A. Igbafe. Benin under British Administration. (London: Longman, 1979), 112-210. 29. S. Osadolor. The Fall of Benin: The Punitive Expedition of 1897. (Lagos: University of Lagos Press, 2010), 85-172. 30. F. Ikponmwosa. Colonial Rule and Economic Development of Benin. (PhD Thesis, Department of History and International Studies, University of Benin, 2014), 47-138. 31. O.J. Ebohon. Colonialism and Post-Colonial Development in West Africa: Benin and the British Empire, in Journal of African History, 37, 2 (1996), 235-251. 32. I.O. Eweka. The Benin Kingdom: History and Government. (Benin City: Royal Press, 1991), 63-124. 33. I.O. Eweka, 127 34. A. Hughes. Benin and the British: A History of Imperial Conflict. (London: Routledge, 2012), 99-205. 35. A. Nwauwa. The Impact of British Colonialism in Nigeria: The Benin Experience, in African Studies Review, 44, 1 (2001), 49-67. CHAPTER THREE SOCIO-POLITICAL IMPACT OF BRITISH COLONIALISM IN BENIN British Colonialism has several impacts in the Benin Kingdom, both political, economical, educational, cultural and religious. This is discussed bellow. 3.1 Political Impact of British Colonialism Before the arrival of British colonizers, the Benin Kingdom operated under a complex and well-organized political system led by the Oba (king) who held divine status. The Oba ruled with absolute authority, supported by a sophisticated administrative structure that included the Uzama (noble chiefs), the Eghaevbo n'Ore (Town Chiefs), and the Eghaevbo n'Ogbe (Palace Chiefs). This carefully balanced power structure ensured stability and effective governance across the kingdom. According to Bradbury, the Oba was considered divine, a descendant of Osanobua (God), and his authority was largely unchallenged within the kingdom, allowing for centralized decision-making while still incorporating input from various councils of chiefs1. The traditional political system of Benin Kingdom featured specialized institutions for governance and justice. The Oba presided over the state council (Uzama) which made important decisions about governance, warfare, and trade. The justice system operated through village and district courts, with final appeals going to the Oba's court. Igbafe explains that this hierarchical system of governance allowed the kingdom to control vast territories through a network of appointed chiefs who represented the Oba's authority in outlying areas, creating an effective administrative system that maintained political unity across diverse regions2. Initial contact between the Benin Kingdom and Britain began as trading relationships in the 15th century, gradually evolving into political engagements by the 19th century. The British, represented by trading companies, attempted to negotiate treaties to increase their influence in the region. Ryder documents that these early diplomatic engagements were approached carefully by Benin's rulers, who attempted to maintain sovereignty while benefiting from trade. The Oba engaged with European powers from a position of strength, limiting European presence and controlling trade terms, demonstrating Benin's political agency before formal colonization3. Following the invasion, the British established a colonial administration that fundamentally altered Benin's political structure. The Oba's role was reduced to that of a figurehead, and the traditional council system was replaced with a British-controlled Native Authority. The British introduced the system of "indirect rule," appointing warrant chiefs and creating native courts that operated under British supervision. This administrative reorganization deliberately undermined traditional political institutions while maintaining the appearance of indigenous governance, creating a hybrid system that prioritized British interests. One significant political impact of British colonialism was the deliberate fragmentation of centralized authority in Benin. The British divided the formerly unified kingdom into smaller administrative units, weakening traditional power structures. This administrative reorganization disrupted centuries-old political relationships and created new power centers that competed with traditional authorities. By separating communities that had historically been united under Benin's authority and creating artificial boundaries, colonial administrators effectively dismantled the kingdom's political cohesion, making resistance more difficult and colonial control more manageable4. British colonialism introduced entirely new political concepts to Benin, including Western legal systems, bureaucratic administration, and eventually democratic institutions. These imported political structures created a dual system where traditional governance mechanisms operated alongside colonial innovations, creating tensions between competing sources of authority. The introduction of written law, formalized taxation systems, and bureaucratic procedures fundamentally transformed how politics functioned in Benin, establishing precedents that would continue to influence governance long after independence5. Despite the overwhelming force of British colonialism, the people of Benin engaged in various forms of political resistance and adaptation. Passive resistance, strategic compliance, and occasional rebellions demonstrated political agency even under colonial rule. Usuanlele documents how traditional authorities, though diminished in power, maintained cultural leadership and quietly preserved aspects of pre-colonial political traditions. This political resilience included maintaining traditional titles and ceremonies, secret societies, and cultural practices that preserved Benin's political identity despite official suppression, demonstrating that colonized peoples were not merely passive victims but active participants in negotiating colonial politics5. The political impact of British colonialism created enduring legacies that continued to shape Benin's political development after Nigeria's independence in 1960. The artificial boundaries, centralized bureaucracy, and Western political structures introduced during colonial rule became permanent features of post-colonial governance. The disruption of traditional political institutions created governance challenges that persist into modern times, including tensions between traditional and modern authority systems. The restored Benin monarchy, while culturally significant, never regained its pre-colonial political powers, operating instead within the framework of the Nigerian state—a permanent reminder of how colonialism fundamentally transformed indigenous political structures6. 3.2 Economic Impact of British Colonialism Before the British colonial intervention, Benin, a powerful kingdom in the southern region of modern-day Nigeria, was thriving with a well-structured socio-political and economic system. The Benin Kingdom, known for its advanced political organization, was governed by a monarchy whose power was centralized under the Oba, the king. The society was hierarchical and intricate, with numerous positions of power and influence. Its economy was predominantly agrarian, based on subsistence farming, trading, and a variety of industries that contributed significantly to its wealth. Farmers grew crops such as yams, cassava, cocoyams, and plantains, while fishing and hunting also played crucial roles in the economy. Additionally, Benin had a robust craft industry, producing textiles, metalwork, ivory, wood carvings, and other artworks that were in high demand both locally and across West Africa7. Trade in the Benin Kingdom was not only regional but also extended to the wider world through its established network of traders, connecting with both African and European markets. Benin had long been a participant in the trans-Saharan trade routes, exchanging goods such as pepper, ivory, palm oil, and cotton. The kingdom also established trade relations with the Portuguese in the 15th century, exchanging palm oil, ivory, and slaves for European goods such as firearms, textiles, and beads. This trade contributed to Benin's substantial wealth and bolstered its position in the regional hierarchy of power. The Benin Empire maintained its autonomy and strength through the strategic manipulation of this trade, combining both economic and military prowess8. However, the arrival of the British colonialists in the late 19th century would drastically alter the economic landscape of the kingdom. The British had long been eyeing Benin as a potential colony, driven by their thirst for resources, and in 1897, they successfully launched an invasion that led to the eventual annexation of the kingdom into the British Empire. The invasion itself was marked by brutal military action, which culminated in the exile of the Oba and the looting of Benin’s historical artifacts, many of which were later taken to museums in the West. This episode marked the beginning of a new economic and political era in Benin’s history, one that would lead to the erosion of its indigenous power structures and the systematic restructuring of its economy9. The British administration quickly moved to impose their economic agenda, transforming the agrarian economy that had been the backbone of Benin’s prosperity. Colonial rule altered the agricultural practices by introducing cash crops such as cocoa, palm oil, and rubber, which became central to the economy. These crops were more profitable for the British in terms of exportation to Europe, thus ensuring that the economic benefits largely flowed out of the kingdom and into colonial coffers. Indigenous farmers were compelled to shift from growing traditional food crops to producing export-oriented cash crops under coercive labor conditions. This change disrupted the traditional food supply systems and led to food insecurity in the region, as the production of staple crops like yams and cassava took a backseat to the more lucrative but less sustainable crops10. The British colonial government also implemented taxation policies that placed a considerable burden on the people of Benin. One of the most controversial policies was the introduction of direct taxation, which required individuals to pay taxes in cash rather than kind. This policy disrupted the pre-existing social fabric, as it forced people to engage in cash economies, leading to the growth of urban centers where individuals had to find employment in the colonial administration or commercial ventures. In the absence of a cash economy, many of the people in rural areas were left struggling to meet the new taxation demands, which ultimately impoverished them. In addition to direct taxes, the British also imposed tariffs on local goods, further hampering the local economy and limiting the wealth that had previously circulated within the kingdom11. As the British consolidated their power in Benin, they introduced a system of indirect rule that undermined the traditional governance structures. This system placed local leaders under the supervision of colonial administrators, effectively eroding the autonomy of the Benin monarchy. Under the new governance structure, the British controlled trade and resource extraction, while the Oba, once a revered figure, was relegated to a figurehead with no real power. This shift not only altered the political landscape but also suppressed the capacity for economic self-determination within the kingdom. Traditional institutions that had supported the economic infrastructure of the kingdom, such as guilds, artisan networks, and local market systems, were sidelined or restructured to serve the interests of the British Empire12. While the British brought infrastructure development to the region, such as railways and roads, these were primarily designed to facilitate the extraction of resources for the benefit of the colonial government. The railways, for instance, connected the hinterlands of Benin to the coast, allowing for easier transportation of raw materials like palm oil and rubber to the ports for export. However, these infrastructural developments had little to no benefit for the average Benin citizen, as the economic gains were siphoned off by the colonial administration and their European corporate partners. The imposition of European values and economic systems replaced indigenous systems that had once been robust, leading to long-lasting impact for the socio-economic fabric of Benin13. The loss of control over trade and economic resources further entrenched the dependency of Benin on Britain. The British introduced a currency system that was foreign to the local population, as well as a monopoly over trade and economic activity. Indigenous businesses and traders were increasingly marginalized in favor of European commercial enterprises, which were able to thrive through their access to capital, legal protection, and global markets. The economic independence that Benin once enjoyed was systematically dismantled, and with it, the kingdom's ability to create wealth through indigenous mechanisms. Consequently, the local economy was tied to the whims of the British Empire, making it vulnerable to global fluctuations in the prices of colonial commodities like palm oil and cocoa14. The colonial era also saw the depletion of Benin's natural resources as the British systematically exploited them. The large-scale extraction of palm oil and rubber during the colonial period led to deforestation and soil degradation, which had long-term negative effects on the agricultural productivity of the region. In the quest to supply the European markets with cheap raw materials, the British disregarded the environmental consequences of their activities. This unsustainable exploitation of resources left the region economically fragile after the end of colonial rule, as the land had been exhausted and the once-diverse economy was reliant on a few crops whose market prices were volatile15. The aftermath of British colonial rule left Benin with an economy that was heavily dependent on the export of a limited range of cash crops and was vulnerable to fluctuations in the international market. The local industries, which had once been vibrant, were either destroyed or transformed to meet colonial needs. The social systems that had supported Benin’s economic activities, such as community-based trade and local craftsmanship, were undermined in favor of centralized, British-controlled systems. This restructuring of the economy contributed to the continued underdevelopment of Benin after independence, as the foundations of a diversified, self-sustaining economy were weakened during the colonial era16. The once-thriving agricultural and trade economy of Benin was transformed into one that was dependent on the colonial state and its interests. Cash crop production, tax policies, and the introduction of foreign trade systems undermined indigenous economic structures and led to food insecurity, poverty, and socio-economic inequality. Furthermore, the political landscape was reshaped to favor British control, further hindering the ability of the Benin people to manage their own affairs and resources. The ramifications of this economic transformation are still felt today, as the foundations of the kingdom’s prosperity were dismantled under colonial rule, leaving the people of Benin to struggle with the legacy of an economy built for the benefit of the colonizer rather than the colonized17. 3.3 The Educational Impact of British Colonialism Before British colonization, the Benin Kingdom maintained a complex indigenous educational system designed to transmit cultural knowledge, practical skills, and social values. Education was primarily informal and practical, occurring through apprenticeships, age-grade systems, and oral traditions. Children learned through observation, participation, and direct instruction from parents, elders, and skilled craftspeople. Boys were typically trained in their fathers' occupations such as farming, hunting, or bronze-casting, while girls learned domestic skills, trading, and crafts from their mothers and female relatives. This education system was deeply integrated with Benin's cultural and religious practices, ensuring the preservation and transmission of specialized knowledge across generations18. The Benin Kingdom featured specialized educational structures for certain professions, particularly for artists, craftspeople, and royal servants. The guild system was central to this specialized education, with established institutions for training bronze casters, ivory carvers, wood sculptors, and other artisans. These guilds maintained strict standards and teaching methodologies, with students progressing through clearly defined stages from novice to master. The famous Benin bronze-casters (Igun Eronmwon) operated as a hereditary guild with exclusive knowledge passed down through family lines, using a structured apprenticeship system that combined technical training with cultural and spiritual knowledge. This specialized educational system produced the extraordinary artistic achievements for which Benin became renowned worldwide19. The Benin Kingdom possessed sophisticated systems for preserving and transmitting historical, political, and philosophical knowledge. Court historians (Ihogbe) and royal bards maintained extensive oral records of Benin's history, genealogy, and political development. Bradbury explains that these specialists underwent rigorous training, memorizing vast amounts of information about royal lineages, important events, and cultural traditions. Philosophical and ethical education occurred through proverbs, folktales, and religious instruction, teaching values such as respect for elders, community responsibility, and moral conduct. This indigenous knowledge system successfully preserved Benin's intellectual traditions for centuries before the introduction of written records by Europeans20. The first Western educational influences in Benin came through Christian missionaries who established mission schools in the late 19th century, particularly following the British invasion of 1897. These early schools focused primarily on religious instruction, basic literacy, and numeracy. The Church Missionary Society established the first formal school in Benin City in 1901, offering elementary education based on the British curriculum. These missionary schools initially attracted few students from elite families, as most Benin people remained skeptical of foreign education that contradicted traditional values and knowledge systems. The education provided was deliberately limited, designed primarily to create literate converts who could read the Bible and serve as junior clerks in the colonial administration. Following formal colonization, the British implemented structured education policies that fundamentally transformed learning in Benin. The colonial administration established government schools alongside mission institutions, creating a two-tiered educational system21. Colonial education policies explicitly aimed to create a small educated elite who could serve as intermediaries between the British authorities and local populations. The 1925 Memorandum on Education Policy in British Tropical Africa shaped educational development, emphasizing practical skills and character development rather than academic achievement. In Benin, this translated to limited educational opportunities focused on creating clerks, interpreters, and junior administrators who would support colonial governance while discouraging higher education that might foster nationalist sentiments22. The content of colonial education deliberately marginalized indigenous knowledge while promoting European perspectives and values. The curriculum emphasized British history, geography, and literature while neglecting or disparaging local cultural knowledge. This educational approach created a profound cultural disruption, teaching Benin students to view their own traditions as inferior to European civilization. Textbooks portrayed Africa as primitive and uncivilized, while exalting British achievements and empire. Religious education undermined traditional spiritual beliefs, while instruction in English language gradually displaced indigenous languages as the medium of education. This curriculum design deliberately created cultural alienation among educated Benin people, separating them from their cultural roots while instilling admiration for British institutions23. Colonial education in Benin was characterized by severely limited access and systematic inequality. Only a small percentage of children received formal education, with significant disparities based on gender, location, and social status. Colonial authorities deliberately restricted educational expansion to control costs and limit the number of educated Africans who might challenge colonial authority. Schools were concentrated in urban areas, particularly Benin City, leaving rural communities with few educational opportunities. Gender discrimination was pronounced, with girls' education considered less important than boys'. By 1940, female enrollment in Benin region schools was less than 10% of total student population, reflecting deliberate policies that reinforced gender inequality and limited women's educational advancement24. One significant educational impact of colonialism was the creation of a new social class: Western-educated elites who occupied an ambiguous position between traditional society and colonial authority. These educated individuals often secured employment in the colonial civil service, missions, or European commercial firms. This new educated class developed distinct values, lifestyles, and aspirations that set them apart from the majority of Benin people. They adopted European dress, speaking English, and embracing Christianity, creating social divisions based on educational status. While some used their education to advance community interests, others became agents of colonial control, creating complex tensions between traditional leadership systems and new educated elites that would persist long after independence26. Despite colonial imposition, the people of Benin demonstrated remarkable resilience in maintaining aspects of traditional education alongside Western schooling. Many families ensured children received traditional training while attending colonial schools, creating a dual educational experience. Cultural resistance included the continued transmission of oral traditions, art forms, and specialized crafts through traditional methods even as formal schooling expanded. Some communities established independent schools that incorporated more indigenous content alongside colonial curriculum requirements. Religious leaders and traditional authorities often encouraged selective engagement with Western education—accepting literacy and technical knowledge while rejecting cultural and religious indoctrination—demonstrating that colonized peoples actively shaped their educational experiences rather than passively accepting colonial models27. The educational impact of British colonialism created enduring legacies that continued to shape Benin's educational development after Nigeria gained independence in 1960. The post-colonial education system inherited colonial structures, curricula, and assumptions about knowledge that proved difficult to transform. Nigeria's educational system continued to favor Western knowledge over indigenous learning traditions, maintaining the language of the colonizer (English) as the primary medium of instruction. The devaluation of indigenous knowledge systems resulted in the loss of valuable traditional wisdom in areas such as medicine, agriculture, and environmental management. Educational inequality established during the colonial period persisted, with urban areas and privileged groups maintaining advantages in educational access and quality. These colonial legacies presented significant challenges for educational development that continue to influence learning in the Benin region today28. 3.4 The Cultural Impact of British Colonialism Before British colonization, the Benin Kingdom boasted extraordinary artistic traditions that expressed cultural identity, historical memory, and spiritual beliefs. The kingdom's bronze-casting tradition produced remarkably sophisticated sculptures and plaques that documented historical events, royal lineages, and cultural practices. These artistic works served as visual archives of Benin's history and worldview, with complex iconography and symbolism understood within their cultural context. The famous bronze heads of Obas (kings), court scenes, and ceremonial objects displayed exceptional technical skill developed over centuries. Other art forms included ivory carvings, wooden sculptures, beadwork, and elaborate wall decorations in the royal palace. These artistic traditions were deeply integrated with religious practices, political ceremonies, and social hierarchies, representing not merely decorative objects but essential expressions of Benin's cultural and historical consciousness29. The pre-colonial Benin Kingdom maintained a complex religious system that structured cultural practices, social relationships, and political authority. At its center was worship of ancestors and various deities (orixas) associated with natural forces, with the Oba (king) serving as intermediary between the living and the spiritual realm. Religious rituals marked important life transitions, agricultural cycles, and royal ceremonies, creating a spiritual framework that permeated all aspects of cultural life. The Ogboni and Osugbo societies regulated moral conduct and preserved spiritual knowledge, while priests of different deities maintained specialized ritual knowledge. Divination systems such as Ifa provided guidance for individual and community decisions. This religious system created cultural cohesion and moral frameworks that guided behavior across the kingdom, establishing shared meanings and values that defined Benin's cultural identity before colonial disruption30. The Edo language served as the foundation of Benin's cultural expression, carrying complex systems of knowledge through oral traditions, proverbs, folktales, and ceremonial speech. Court historians (Ihoghae) preserved detailed oral records of royal genealogies and historical events through specialized memorization techniques and performance traditions. These oral traditions contained historical information, philosophical concepts, ethical teachings, and cultural values, transmitted through specialized linguistic forms and narrative structures. Proverbs and idioms encoded cultural wisdom in condensed linguistic expressions used in everyday communication and formal speech. Songs, poems, and praise chants celebrated cultural heroes, historical events, and community values. This sophisticated language-based knowledge system preserved cultural continuity for centuries before the introduction of written records by Europeans, representing an alternative model of knowledge preservation that colonizers failed to recognize or respect31. Benin's pre-colonial social structure organized community relationships according to complex principles including kinship ties, age grades, gender roles, and occupational specialization. The extended family (ebi) formed the basic social unit, with clearly defined responsibilities between generations and among relatives. Age-grade associations organized individuals born within specific time periods, creating horizontal bonds that complemented vertical kinship ties and providing frameworks for communal labor, military organization, and cultural celebrations. Guild systems organized specialized occupations, particularly artisans who produced the kingdom's famous artworks. Cultural values emphasized respect for elders, community responsibility over individualism, and reciprocal obligations between rulers and subjects. This tightly integrated social structure sustained cultural continuity through clearly defined roles, responsibilities, and relationships that organized everyday life before colonial disruption altered these fundamental cultural patterns32. The 1897 British "Punitive Expedition" against Benin represented a devastating cultural assault, resulting in the systematic looting of thousands of cultural artifacts that embodied the kingdom's artistic heritage and historical memory. British forces deliberately targeted cultural symbols to demonstrate conquest, removing an estimated 3,000-4,000 bronze, ivory, and wooden artworks that were subsequently dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe. It has been documented how this cultural plunder was justified through racist narratives that simultaneously marveled at the technical sophistication of Benin art while denying African origin by attributing the works to external influences. The removal of these artifacts—many of which had deep religious significance and documented historical events—created profound cultural trauma, depriving the community of material connections to ancestral achievements and historical memory. This deliberate cultural dispossession represented not merely theft but a strategic attempt to undermine cultural confidence and historical consciousness among Benin people33. Colonial language policies systematically privileged English over indigenous languages, creating new linguistic hierarchies that fundamentally altered cultural expression and identity. English became the language of government, education, and economic advancement, while Edo and other local languages were marginalized in formal contexts. This linguistic imposition affected cultural transmission, as younger generations educated in colonial schools became increasingly fluent in English while losing proficiency in indigenous languages that carried cultural knowledge. Traditional linguistic forms such as elaborate oratory, proverbs, and specialized ceremonial speech declined as Western literary forms and communication styles gained prominence. Bilingualism created new cultural possibilities but also linguistic divides between educated elites and the general population. The introduction of written literacy, while providing new means of knowledge preservation, simultaneously undermined oral traditions by privileging written documentation over memorization and performance. These linguistic transformations profoundly affected how cultural knowledge was transmitted and expressed across generations34. Colonial influences dramatically transformed everyday cultural expressions including clothing, music, and visual aesthetics in Benin. Traditional clothing made from locally produced textiles with culturally significant designs was gradually replaced by European styles and imported fabrics among the educated elite and urban residents. Clothing became a visible marker of cultural orientation, with "traditional" and "modern" dress signifying different relationships to colonial influence. Musical traditions incorporating indigenous instruments, rhythmic patterns, and performance contexts faced competition from Western musical forms introduced through churches, schools, and later, radio. Visual culture transformed as European architectural styles, furniture, and decorative objects replaced indigenous designs in urban areas and among the elite. Photography introduced new forms of visual representation that altered how Benin people documented important events and preserved family memories. These changes in everyday cultural expression created visible distinctions between those embracing Western cultural forms and those maintaining indigenous traditions, materializing cultural divisions within Benin society35. The cultural impact of British colonialism created enduring legacies that continued to shape Benin's cultural landscape after Nigeria's independence. Cultural hybridity became a defining feature of post-colonial identity, with mixed cultural forms reflecting both indigenous traditions and colonial influences. Contemporary Benin cultural expressions navigate complex relationships with colonial history, simultaneously reclaiming indigenous traditions while acknowledging irreversible cultural transformations. The struggle to repatriate looted artifacts continues, with the "Benin Bronzes" becoming powerful symbols of cultural heritage and colonial injustice in international debates about museum collections. Cultural revitalization efforts attempt to recover lost traditions, particularly in language preservation, traditional crafts, and ceremonial practices. Religious diversity reflects colonial influence, with Christianity, traditional practices, and syncretic forms coexisting within communities. These ongoing cultural negotiations reveal how colonial disruptions continue to shape cultural development long after formal colonization ended, demonstrating that cultural decolonization remains an unfinished process36. 3.5 The Religious Impact of British Colonialism Pro to the arrival of British colonization, the Benin Kingdom practiced a complex religious system centered on ancestor worship, nature deities, and the divine status of the Oba (king). This religious structure provided spiritual meaning, moral guidance, and social cohesion throughout the kingdom. The Oba held sacred status as a divine king, serving as an intermediary between the living and ancestors, with religious authority inseparable from political power. The royal ancestors were venerated through elaborate rituals at ancestral altars (ukhure) within the palace, while ordinary citizens maintained family shrines honoring their own ancestors. A pantheon of deities associated with natural forces included Olokun (god of the sea and wealth), Ogun (god of iron and war), and Osun (goddess of fertility and healing), each with dedicated priests, shrines, and ceremonial practices. Religious specialists including priests (ohen), diviners, and medicine practitioners maintained ritual knowledge and facilitated communication with the spiritual realm through various ceremonies, sacrifices, and divination systems37. The religious calendar of pre-colonial Benin featured numerous festivals and ceremonies that structured community life and reinforced spiritual connections. These ceremonial cycles connected agricultural seasons, historical commemorations, and royal authority through ritual performances. It has been documented how the annual Igue festival served as the most important religious celebration, during which the Oba's spiritual power was renewed through elaborate ceremonies involving animal sacrifices, ritual cleansing, and public performances. Other significant ceremonies included Ugie Erha Oba (honoring the Oba's father), Emobo (purification ritual), and Ekaba (festival of wealth), each with specific ritual sequences that maintained cosmic order and community well-being. Masquerade performances represented ancestral spirits returning to advise and bless the community, while age-grade initiations incorporated religious elements marking life transitions. These ceremonial practices created shared religious experiences that unified communities across the kingdom, embedding religious meaning in everyday life through calendrical observances that connected Benin people to their ancestors, deities, and cosmic order before colonial disruption altered these ritual patterns38. Divination systems formed a central component of Benin's religious practice, providing frameworks for understanding cosmic forces and making decisions about important matters. The most prominent divination system, Iha (similar to Ifa in Yoruba tradition), involved complex interpretations of sacred texts and symbols. Trained diviners interpreted patterns formed when palm nuts or divination chains were cast, accessing a vast corpus of oral verses that provided guidance for virtually every human situation. Divination consultations preceded major decisions including marriages, construction projects, military campaigns, and treatment of illnesses, integrating religious guidance into practical affairs. Other divination methods included dream interpretation, spirit possession, and observing natural phenomena. These divination practices represented sophisticated knowledge systems that combined empirical observation with spiritual interpretation, preserving accumulated wisdom about human psychology, social relationships, and natural environments. Rather than simple superstition, as colonial missionaries later characterized them, these systems constituted complex epistemological frameworks that organized knowledge and guided decision-making throughout the kingdom before colonial religious interventions dismissed them as primitive superstition39. The physical landscape of pre-colonial Benin was organized according to sacred principles, with religious meaning embedded in architecture, artwork, and spatial arrangements. The royal palace contained numerous shrines and altars dedicated to royal ancestors and deities, with architectural features reflecting cosmological principles. Brass altar pieces, ivory carvings, and wooden sculptures served crucial religious functions beyond their artistic merit, embodying spiritual forces and facilitating communication with ancestors and deities. Sacred groves outside settlements housed community shrines where particularly powerful deities were venerated, creating protected spaces where specific taboos governed behavior. Certain rivers, forests, and hills were considered dwelling places of spirits, requiring special rituals before human activities could be conducted there. Religious symbols incorporated into everyday objects—doors, posts, tools, and personal adornments—extended sacred protection into daily life. This integration of religious meaning into material culture and physical spaces created an environment where spiritual presence was visibly manifested, binding religious concepts to tangible experience before colonial interventions attempted to desacralize the Benin landscape through church construction and destruction of indigenous shrines40. The first significant Christian influence in Benin came through Portuguese Catholic missionaries who established brief contact in the 15th and 16th centuries, but substantial Christian presence only began following the British invasion of 1897. Christian missionaries—primarily Anglican, Catholic, and later various Protestant denominations—accompanied colonial administrators, establishing missions initially in Benin City and gradually expanding to surrounding areas. These early missionaries viewed traditional Benin religious practices as "heathen idolatry" requiring complete eradication rather than understanding or accommodation. Missionary strategies focused on establishing schools, hospitals, and churches as vehicles for conversion, offering education and healthcare to attract converts while systematically condemning indigenous practices. The Church Missionary Society established St. Matthew's Church in Benin City by 1902, while Roman Catholic missions followed shortly thereafter, creating competing Christian denominations that further complicated the religious landscape. Initial conversion proved difficult as many Benin people resisted abandoning ancestral practices, but missionaries gradually gained followers, particularly among young people educated in mission schools where Christian instruction was mandatory and traditional practices forbidden41. British colonial authorities implemented policies that deliberately undermined traditional religious authority while privileging Christianity, creating a legal and administrative environment hostile to indigenous practices. Colonial regulations banned certain religious ceremonies deemed "barbaric" or "uncivilized," particularly those involving animal sacrifice, masquerade performances, or public rituals that colonial officials considered disturbing to public order. It has been showed how colonial administrators actively supported missionary efforts, providing land grants for churches, offering preferential treatment to Christian converts in colonial employment, and sometimes using government resources to suppress traditional religious practices. The exile of Oba Ovonramwen following the 1897 invasion created a profound disruption in Benin's religious system, as the Oba's sacred role had been central to religious ceremonies maintaining cosmic balance. When a new Oba was permitted to ascend the throne in 1914, his religious authority was deliberately constrained by colonial restrictions, creating a separation between political and religious power previously united in the Oba's person. These systematic attempts to dismantle indigenous religious authority reflected colonial "civilizing mission" ideology that viewed European Christianity as inherently superior to African spiritual traditions, justifying religious suppression as necessary for moral advancement42. As colonial rule consolidated, increasing numbers of Benin people converted to Christianity, creating new religious identities and social divisions based on religious affiliation. Conversion patterns revealed distinct social patterns, with early converts typically coming from marginalized groups seeking new opportunities, educated youth exposed to Christian teaching in schools, and occasionally chiefs or wealthy individuals seeking advantages in the colonial system. By the 1920s and 1930s, Christian converts formed a distinct social group that adopted European dress, observed Sunday worship, built Western-style homes, and embraced other external markers of "civilization" as defined by missionaries. Christian conversion often created intra-family tensions as younger converts rejected ancestral obligations and ritual responsibilities, sometimes refusing to participate in family ceremonies or contribute to traditional festivals. Different Christian denominations established separate communities, schools, and social networks, creating new religious divisions unknown in pre-colonial Benin. Churches became important social institutions, organizing women's groups, youth associations, and educational activities that offered alternative community structures outside traditional religious frameworks. These conversion patterns transformed not only religious beliefs but social identities, creating new categories of belonging based on religious affiliation that reshaped Benin society43. By the 1930s and 1940s, dissatisfaction with European missionary control led to the emergence of independent African churches that offered alternative Christian expressions more compatible with indigenous cultural values. These independent churches, sometimes called "Aladura" (praying churches) or "spiritual churches," incorporated traditional elements that missionary denominations rejected, creating distinctive hybrid religious forms. These churches emphasized prophecy, spiritual healing, visions, and direct divine communication that resonated with traditional religious experiences while maintaining core Christian doctrines. Many incorporated traditional musical instruments, dance forms, and ceremonial elements into worship, creating more culturally familiar religious expressions. Some explicitly addressed problems that traditional religion had managed, including protection from witchcraft, healing physical ailments, and ensuring fertility. The Christ Apostolic Church, Cherubim and Seraphim Society, and later the Celestial Church of Christ gained followings in the Benin region, offering spiritual experiences that mainstream missionary churches considered excessive or inappropriate44. These independent churches provided spaces where converts could express African spirituality within Christian frameworks, representing important religious innovations that challenged both missionary control and colonial assumptions about religious development. Their growth demonstrated that Christianity in Benin was not simply imposed but actively transformed through indigenous religious creativity45. The religious impact of British colonialism created enduring legacies that continued to shape Benin's spiritual landscape after Nigeria's independence in 1960. The post-colonial religious environment featured complex relationships between Christianity, traditional practices, and emerging religious innovations. The restored Benin monarchy has attempted to revitalize traditional ceremonies, particularly the Igue festival, though with necessary adaptations reflecting irreversible religious transformations from the colonial period. Christianity has become firmly established, with denominations once considered foreign now claimed as indigenous institutions. Pentecostal and Charismatic movements have gained significant followings since the 1970s, offering prosperity theology and spiritual warfare concepts that address traditional concerns about well-being and spiritual causation through Christian frameworks46. Religious identities have become increasingly fluid, with many individuals participating in multiple religious contexts depending on specific needs—attending church on Sundays while consulting traditional healers for certain ailments or maintaining ancestral shrines for family protection. Debates about cultural authenticity and religious identity continue to reference colonial religious transformations, with some advocating return to traditional practices while others embrace Christian identity as authentically African despite colonial introduction. These ongoing religious negotiations demonstrate how colonial disruptions continue to shape spiritual development long after formal colonization ended, creating a religious landscape characterized by plurality, hybridization, and continuous innovation47. ENDNOTES 1. R.E. Bradbury. The Benin Kingdom and the Edo-Speaking Peoples of South-Western Nigeria. (International African Institute, 1957), 87 2. P.A. Igbafe. The Nemesis of Power: Agho Obaseki and Benin Politics. (Ibadan: Macmillan Nigeria, 1991), 89-143 3. P.A. Igbafe, 148 4. Jacob U. Egharevba. A Short History of Benin. Ibadan University Press, (1968), 55. 5. Jacob U. Egharevba, 57 6. A. F. C. Ryder. Benin and the Europeans,-. Longmans, (1969), 72. 7. Law, R. Benin and the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. In T. Falola & M. Heaton (Eds.), A History of Nigeria. (Durham: Carolina Academic Press), 2005, 85-106 8. F. Ikponmwosa. Colonial Rule and Economic Development of Benin. (PhD Thesis, Department of History and International Studies, University of Benin, 2014), 47-138. 9. Aribidesi Adisa Usman. The Benin Kingdom: Conquest and Resistance in Pre-Colonial Africa. Routledge, (2017), 102. 10. Oral interview with Mr. Omigie Imiavan. Age, 78 years. 21st December, 2024. 11. Oral interview with Mr. Omigie Imiavan. Age, 78 years. 21st December, 2024. 12. Oral interview with Mr. Omigie Imiavan. Age, 78 years. 21st December, 2024. 13. Oral Interview with Mr. Osagieduwa. Age, 82 years. 2nd December, 2024. 14. Oral Interview with Mr. Osagieduwa. Age, 82 years. 2nd December, 2024. 15. P.J. Darling, Archeology and History of Benin Kingdom Southern West Nigeria: (B.A.R. Britain 1984) P.6. 16. Peter M. Roese. "Benin Prehistory: The Oral Traditions and Chronology." African Arts, (2020), 34-36. 17. O. B. Osadolor. "The Benin Kingdom: A History of its Rise, Development, and Influence." Journal of African History, (2021), 89-90. 18. E. B. Eweka, Evolution of Benin Chieftaincy Titles, Benin 1972, p. 2. 19. Oral interview with Mr. Osazee Egogo. Age, 79 years. 21st December, 2024. 20. Oral interview with Mr. Osazee Egogo. Age, 79 years. 21st December, 2024. 21. Oral interview with Mr. Osazee Egogo. Age, 79 years. 21st December, 2024. 22. Oral interview with Mr. Osazee Egogo. Age, 79 years. 21st December, 2024. 23. P.A. Onosolease,. The Meaning of Edo History, (Lagos Univ. Press Lagos, 1999) 24. Ivbiotu, Amadasun. Edo People and Culture in Pre-colonial Period: A Revisit of Culture and Traditions. (Lagos Akin Press Idumota, 1993) p.16-21 25. M. Dmitri, Bondarenko. "The Benin Kingdom: Between Tradition and Modernity." Journal of Historical Sociology, (2018), 234-236. 26. R. E. Bradbury. The Benin Kingdom and the Edo-Speaking Peoples of South-Western Nigeria. International African Institute, (1973), 192-193. 27. O. Ebohon. The Spiritual Beliefs of the Benin People. African Spiritual Studies Journal, (2011), 18(2), 45-61. 28. D.U. Edebiri. Benin Historical Essays. (Benin City: Allen Prints, 2005), 45-78. 29. D.U. Edebiri. Benin Historical Essays. 79. 30. D.U. Edebiri. Benin Historical Essays. 81 31. 32. P.A. Igbafe. British Rule in Benin-: Direct or Indirect?, in Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 3, 4 (1967), 701-717. 33. Oral interview with Mr. Osakpawan Eseosa. Age, 76 years. 21st December 2024. 34. Oral interview with Mr. Osazee Egogo. Age, 79 years. 21st December, 2024. 35. Oral interview with Mr. Osazee Egogo. Age, 79 years. 21st December, 2024. 36. J. U. Egharevba. A Short History of Benin. Ibadan University Press, (1968), 55. 37. J. U. Egharevba, 61 38. A. F. C. Ryder. Benin and the Europeans,-. Longmans, (1969), 72. 39. M.B.E. Macrae Simpson. A Political Intelligence Report on the Benin Division of the Benin Province. (Benin City: Ministry of Local Government, 1936), 32-67. 40. Oral interview with Mr. Omoike Iyekekpolor. Age, 80 years. 21st December, 2024. 41. Oral interview with Mr. Omoike Iyekekpolor. Age, 80 years. 21st December, 2024. 42. O.S.B. Omoregie. Great Benin 2: The Age of Odionwere (600-900). (Benin City: NERASO, 1997a), 15-59. 43. N.O. Omozusi. The Benin Kingdom: A Century After British Invasion. (Benin City: Mufti International Services, 1997), 77-134. 44. U. Usuanlele. British Colonial Administration, Development of Islam and Islamic Education in a Non-Muslim Society: The Benin Division (Nigeria) Experience-, in Contemporary Journal of African Studies, 2, 2 (2014), 65-96. 45. O. B. Osadolor. "The Benin Kingdom: A History of its Rise, Development, and Influence." Journal of African History, (2021), 89-90. 46. J.I. Osagie & L.E. Otoide. Colonial Rule and Industrialization in Esan, Benin Province, Nigeria: A Case Study of Institutional Adaptation, in African Research Review, 9, 1 (2015), 73-94. 47. P.A. Igbafe. Benin under British Administration. (London: Longman, 1979), 112-210. CHAPTER FOUR Conclusion The study highlighted the socio-political impact of British colonialism in Benin, it focus on the transformation of the kingdom's political structure, economy, gender relations and legal system. The British colonial involvement began with trade in the early 19th century, driven by economic interests such as palm oil production, but quickly escalated into a violent conquest in 1897. This marked the beginning of profound changes in Benin's political and social systems, as British policies aimed to dismantle the kingdom's traditional governance and replace it with their own imperial structures. The socio-political consequences of British rule were felt across various aspects of Benin society, from economic exploitation to cultural transformations, impacting both men and women in significant ways1. The research showed that British colonial policies radically altered Benin's governance. Before the arrival of the British, the kingdom was a centralized, well-organized state with the Oba at its head, supported by a hierarchy of chiefs and elders. The British imposed indirect rule, undermining the political structures and removing much of the authority of the Oba, who was exiled after the British conquest. The imposition of British colonial governance led to a restructuring of political power, marginalizing traditional rulers and establishing a system that prioritized colonial interests. This shift in political structure significantly weakened Benin's autonomy and led to the erosion of indigenous governance. It was noted that British legal policies further disrupted the traditional justice system in Benin. Before colonialism, Benin had a well-established legal system based on customary law, with the Oba acting as the chief judicial authority. However, British colonial authorities replaced this system with English common law, sidelining the traditional justice mechanisms. The introduction of the British legal system, combined with the forced exile of the Oba, led to the dismantling of Benin’s judicial framework and the erosion of its cultural values in legal matters. The consequences of this shift were long-lasting, as it undermined the legitimacy of traditional leadership and justice systems2. The study also highlighted the impact of British colonialism on gender relations in Benin society. Under colonial rule, gender roles became more rigid, with men being given access to formal education and economic opportunities, while women were increasingly relegated to the domestic sphere. This transformation led to the marginalization of women in public life, as colonial policies excluded them from many forms of economic and political participation. Before the British conquest, women in Benin had significant roles in the kingdom’s economy and politics. However, the imposition of colonial structures restricted these roles and reinforced patriarchal values that marginalized women3. The research emphasized that despite the challenges posed by colonialism, resistance movements played a significant role in shaping the socio-political identity of Benin. Various forms of resistance, including armed conflict, protests, and cultural preservation, were employed by the people of Benin to push back against British colonial policies. These resistance movements helped to maintain a sense of national identity and defiance against foreign domination. Although the British succeeded in establishing colonial rule, the resistance movements left a lasting legacy on Benin’s socio-political landscape, influencing future struggles for independence. Conclusion The study concluded that British colonialism had a profound and transformative effect on the socio-political landscape of Benin. The British colonial policies disrupted the existing political and legal systems, undermining the power of the Oba and replacing traditional governance structures with those designed to serve colonial interests. The socio-political fabric of Benin was significantly altered, as the kingdom’s autonomy and traditional institutions were weakened, and the local people’s participation in governance was diminished. This shift contributed to the long-lasting consequences of British colonial rule, with Benin losing much of its political power and cultural autonomy4. It was noted that the economic consequences of British rule in Benin were devastating. The British imposed a colonial economic structure that prioritized the extraction of resources for the benefit of the empire, leaving Benin’s economy heavily dependent on the export of palm oil and other raw materials. This economic dependency stifled local industries and made the kingdom vulnerable to the fluctuations of the global market. The British also introduced exploitative labor practices that further impoverished the local population, exacerbating socio-economic inequalities in Benin. These economic transformations left the kingdom struggling to recover long after the end of colonial rule. The research observed the transformation of gender roles and relations under British colonialism. The colonial policies reinforced patriarchal systems, limiting women’s access to education, economic opportunities, and political participation. Before colonialism, women in Benin had important roles in governance, trade, and social life, but British rule significantly marginalized their involvement in public affairs. The consequences of this shift were long-lasting, as women continued to face discrimination and exclusion from key aspects of society in post-colonial Benin. This legacy of gender inequality remains a challenge in modern Benin5. It equally emphasized the role of resistance movements in shaping the socio-political identity of Benin. Although colonial rule was established through military conquest and political manipulation, the Benin people resisted in various forms, including armed struggles and cultural preservation. These resistance movements were crucial in maintaining a sense of national identity and solidarity among the people. Even though the British ultimately succeeded in their colonization efforts, the resistance movements contributed to the development of a post-colonial consciousness that would later fuel independence movements in Benin and other parts of Africa. Finally, the study concluded that the socio-political impact of British colonialism in Benin was far-reaching and transformative. The political, economic, and social structures of the kingdom were significantly altered, and the consequences of these changes are still felt in Benin today. The colonial legacy of political fragmentation, economic dependence, and gender inequality continues to shape the country’s development. However, the resistance movements and the cultural resilience of the Benin people left a lasting legacy that continues to influence their post-colonial identity and struggles for justice. The British colonial experience in Benin, while destructive, also laid the foundation for future resistance and eventual independence. ENDNOTES 1. Jacob U. Egharevba. A Short History of Benin. Ibadan University Press, (1968), 55. 2. F. Ikponmwosa. Colonial Rule and Economic Development of Benin. (PhD Thesis, Department of History and International Studies, University of Benin, 2014), 47-138. 3. Oral interview with Mr. Omigie Imiavan. Age, 78 years. 21st December, 2024. 4. Oral Interview with Mr. Osagieduwa. Age, 82 years. 2nd December, 2024. 5. O. B. Osadolor. "The Benin Kingdom: A History of its Rise, Development, and Influence." 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