Caroline Netsai Kaseke

GREAT ZIMBABWE UNIVERSITY JULIUS NYERERE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY MSC COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOSOCIAL ISSUES IN DE FACTO FEMALE HEADED HOUSEHOLDS: INSIGHTS FROM MT PLEASANT HARARE BY CAROLINE NETSAI KASEKE M181025 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO GREAT ZIMBABWE UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE MASTER OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY 2019 ABSTRACT The prevalence of psychosocial issues among women and female headed households in the form of de facto female heads of households is a subject of debate especially in the patriarchal societies like Zimbabwe. The overall objective of this study was to identify and analyse psychosocial issues in de facto female headed households in Mt Pleasant Harare. Guided by the gender schema theory and the sustainable livelihoods approach the study used ethnographic contextual investigation to assess the psychosocial issues faced by de facto female heads of households and mitigation pathways adopted to reduce the effects. Using snowball sampling, the study made use of date from de facto female heads of households for in depth interviews. The findings indicated that de facto female headed households experienced stigma, discrimination and poverty due to their relationships with their partners as well as the community. The impact of psychosocial issues is felt in rifeness of problems such as social exclusion, financial incapacitation, immorality, mental traumas, and sexual dysfunctions. However, female headed households engage in income generating activities to alleviate the impact of poverty in their households, as well as creating peer support groups for psychosocial support within their circles. DECLARATION I, Caroline Netsai Kaseke hereby declare that this is my original work and has not been presented for any award in this or any other University or Institution of higher learning. Signature……………………………………………………………. APPROVAL FORM The undersigned certify that they have read and recommended to Great Zimbabwe University for acceptance of the project entitled: Psychosocial issues in de facto Female Headed Households: Insights from Mt Pleasant Harare and submitted by Caroline Netsai Kaseke in partial fulfillment for the award of a Master of Science Degree in Counselling Psychology. ……………………………………………………………. Supervisor ……………………………………………………………. Chairperson Date…………………………………… DEDICATION This work is dedicated to all de facto female heads of households. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank the Almighty God for the strength and opportunity he provided me to go through the programme in good health. My gratitude goes to my supervisor and mentor, Dr Hebert Zirima for his time, backing and tolerance in this study. I am very grateful for his assistance, guidance, and concern that he rendered me in the various phases of this study. I also wish to thank all the academic staff of the Great Zimbabwe University Psychology Department for their support including the late Dean Prof Pilot Mudhovozi whose input shaped my approach to this study. My special appreciation to my colleagues especially my chairperson Dr. Ushehwedu Kufakurinani for the support he offered throughout my studies and my family at large for bearing with me during my studies. May God bless you all. Contents ABSTRACTi DECLARATIONii APPROVAL FORMiii DEDICATIONiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSv CHAPTER 11 INTRODUCTION1 1.1 Background to the Study1 1.2 Statement of the Problem3 1.3 Justification4 1.4 Aim5 1.5 Objectives5 1.6. Research Questions5 1.7 Delimitations5 1.8 Definition of Key Terms5 Chapter 26 Literature Review6 Conceptual framework6 2.1.1Female Headed Households. (FHH)6 2.1.2Psychological Issues in de facto FHHs7 2.2 Review of related studies8 2.2.1 Studies from America8 2.2.2 Studies from Asia9 2.2.3 STUDIES FROM AFRICA10 2.2.4 Studies from Zimbabwe14 2.3 Theoretical framework16 2.3.1 Gender Schema theory16 2.3.2 The Sustainable Livelihood Approach17 CHAPTER THREE18 Research Methodology18 3.1 Research Approach18 3.2 Research Design18 3.3 Population and Sampling19 3.3.1 Level of Education19 3.3.2 Religion20 3.4 Data Collection Instruments20 3.5 Research Procedure21 3.6 Pre-test21 3.7 Data Analysis and Interpretation22 3.8 Ethical Considerations22 CHAPTER FOUR23 FINDINGS OF THE STUDY23 4.0 INTRODUCTION23 4.1 Types of de facto FHHs23 4.2 Poverty in de facto FHHs24 4.2.1 Stigma, discrimination and social exclusion25 4.2.2 Misconceptions/false impressions of interests and immorality27 4.2.3 Sexual stresses and deprivation of conjugal rights.28 4.2.4 Diversified Income generating activities by de facto FHHs30 4.3 Psychological issues faced by de facto female heads of households31 4.3.1 Psychological disorders faced by de facto FHHs32 CHAPTER FIVE36 Discussion, conclusion and recommendations36 5.0 Introduction36 5.1 Discussion36 5.3 Conclusion40 5.4 Recommendations41 MODEL42 REFERENCES43 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study This study assesses the psychosocial issues emanating from relationships in de facto female headed households in the Mt Pleasant area in Harare (de facto in this case means although by law, norms and values of the patriarchal society of Zimbabwe, men are legally heads of households but in reality the households under study are being head by women during the presents of their spouses. According to Stansfeld & Candy (2006), psychosocial health is an evaluation of the mental state resulting from life experiences and maladjusted cognitive and behavioral processes; in short, the psychological and social factors of life. Kartik & Vecchio (1998) defined Psychosocial health as a state of mental, emotional, social, and spiritual well-being whereby the thinking portion of psychosocial health is known as mental health. Female headed households: is a household either where no adult males are present, owing to divorce, separation, migration, non-marriage or widowhood, “de jure FHH’ or where men, although present, do not contribute to the household income ‘de facto FHH (ILO 2005). Historically and culturally in Zimbabwe men have been thrust with the responsibility to oversee the upkeep of their families. They have generally been breadwinners the world over. This can also be traced back to the biblical ages where men were said to be responsible for providing for their families in terms of food, resources and protection whilst women were responsible for child bearing and family upkeep at home. In patriarchal societies, women have been subjugated to the home spaces whilst men have dominated public spaces (Kufakurinani 2019). As Guy (1990) observes, “….. Sexual division of labour existed where women were important agricultural producers, which provided the subsistence base and the surplus that the society produced; and they were also responsible for domestic labor.” Ultimately, patriarchal society ascribed men three Ps of masculinity namely provision, procreating and protection (Gilmore, 1991). Gilmore (1991) argues that, “far from being exceptional and widely divergent, conceptions of what constitutes a “real man” have been common and consistent through time and around the world. A distinct code of manhood has not only been part of nearly every society on earth — whether agricultural or urban, pre-modern or advanced, patriarchal or relatively egalitarian societal expectations on men have remained almost the same.” These codes perpetually contain the same three requirements; a male who aspires to be a man must be in a position to Protect, Procreate and Provide for his family. In the twenty first century, while the domestic ideology has perpetuated, a number of shifts must be acknowledged. Women’s pressure groups, for example, have emerged which have advocated equal opportunities for men and women. Women, during the late twentieth to the twenty first century, have now been seriously considered for formal education and employment getting same salaries with men for the same positions. There has also been a decline on the homemaker ideal that can be dated as far back as colonial Zimbabwe (Kufakurinani 2019). This decline has seen housewives increasingly engaging in wage work the period during the first and Second World War experienced important shift with men at the warfront whilst women took over civil work and ran households the world over which was a very fundamental social change and shift to improve living standards and as a vehicle for marital power. It is within this context that there has emerged a class of women who have come to head families where their partners are economically inactive. The net result has been erosion, if not a compromise, of the capacity of men to provide three Ps which are Provision, Procreation and Protection in a marriage. The situation in countries like modern Zimbabwe has been further compounded by a series of economic crises that have seen some men losing formal employment while their partners remained employed. The shrinking economy during the period 2000 to 2008 accompanied by shrinking industrial activities has been characterised by closure or downsising of some manufacturing industries. Formal employment has collapsed and those who were still employed earned wages below the poverty datum line (Murisa & Chikweche, 2015). The men who failed to access formal employment or a steady income have, thus, failed to meet the expectations of patriarchal societies. It is within this context that this study proposes to examine married career women whose partners are unemployed or failing to provide for the family, at least to the extent expected by society or their partners. For society, such men have been emasculated as they have been compromised in their capacity to fulfill the three Ps. There are several factors that may cause men’s inability to contribute to family incomes and these may include unemployment, disabilities or even negligence. Families in which women provide for its survival can be called female-headed households (Habib 2010). Indeed, according to International Labour Organisation (ILO), female headed household is a household either where no adult males are present, owing to divorce, separation, migration, non-marriage or widowhood, or where men, although present, do not contribute to the household income (ILO Thesaurus, 2005). Female-headed households, of whatever form have seen women in Zimbabwe undergoing a life-long struggle to shoulder responsibilities in familial and household contexts. It is evident that the burden of poverty falls disproportionately on women and more so on households headed by women (Tirsit and Retta 2016). The family is like an ecological system that affects others and the whole system. In most cases, female-headed families are facing social and psychological problems such as emotional stress, loneliness, isolation, insecurity, physical and emotional abuse. It is known in Zimbabwe that for the past decade, there are many female-headed families who are facing different problems in their struggle for survival especially with the economic crisis in the country. The problems include inability to pay children’s school fees, medical fees, and affording three decent meals a day and buy clothing at the same time trying to manage emotional stresses from balancing work and home pressures and, in some cases, advancing their own education. This study attempts to assess the psychosocial problems that female-headed families that take the form “where men, although present, do not contribute to the households” or do not take the upper hand in providing for the family. It picks selected cases studies from middle income families which include women actively employed in formal spaces such as Universities and government departments. The outcome of this study may be used as a starting point for policy makers, women focused organisations, associations and non-governmental organisations to investigate the problem in different angles, and support women-headed families that take the form being discussed in this study although women take the challenges and are not necessarily hapless social victims. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Since Zimbabwe is a patriarchal community, having de facto FHH can be a serious problem owing to societal expectations (of men taking the upper hand whilst women take care of the family and also coming up with well-defined gender roles and responsibilities). De facto FHH have seen some families face psychosocial problems which sometimes lead to destruction, separation, divorce and psychopathologies such as stress, anxiety, depression and anger issues (Kartik & Vecchio 1998). There is a deficiency of literature on the psychosocial issues involved in de facto FHH in Zimbabwe. It is probable that the responsibility of family upkeep in various dimensions is increasingly falling on women with dire consequences that must be researched, although women should not be pathologised or seen as helpless victims- their experiences are wide ranging and interesting to research on. Most researches are pre-occupied with discussing de jure (Elsevier, 2017) FHH which leaves limited research, if any, on de facto FHH. Wives in de facto FHH are at times under pressure to conceal these realities and suffer silently, of which the suffering too goes for the men who would have failed to meet up with societal expectations (Tirsit & Retta 2016). There are reasons to believe that de facto FHH have increased very much over the years evidenced by the widening economic challenges in the country and the narrowing of economic opportunities that have increasingly squeezed the formal employment sector where many men have been affected. (Mtisi 2012). This study seeks to contribute to the understanding of psychosocial issues faced by de facto FHH by focusing on Mt Pleasant area in Harare. 1.3 Justification The study seeks to contribute novel knowledge and understanding of family dynamics in Zimbabwe in relation to gendered roles in circumstances of female headed households. There are a lot of studies which look at the de jure FHH. However, little has been done on de facto FHH whereby the male spouse will be available but financially incapacitated. This study is important as it aims to gather data on a phenomenon which has been traditionally ignored and taken lightly in patriarchal societies such as Zimbabwe through identifying the psychosocial problems on relationships of FH middle class salaried households in Zimbabwe. This study will benefit the community in general as it provides insights on the nature of problems faced by de facto FHH. The society on perceptions about constructed roles of men and women in marriages. The understandings generated from this study also have far wider implications for policy makers with regards to employment and the provision of social services and economic development…. 1.4 Aim This study aims to identify and evaluate the psychosocial issues involved in de facto female headed families. 1.5 Objectives The specific objectives of the study are to: Identify types of de facto FHHs. Identify social issues that de facto FHH face. Analyses psychological issues affecting de facto FHH. Develop a model for assisting women who face challenges in de facto FHH. 1.6. Research Questions What social issues do de facto female-headed families face? What are the psychological issues de facto FHH face? What are the participants’ views on recommendations to solutions of problems faced by de facto FHH? 1.7 Delimitations The study was carried out in Harare the capital city of Zimbabwe specifically the Mt Pleasant area. The study focused on the psychosocial problems faced by female-headed families where their partners were not contributing financially to the upkeep of the family. The focus of the study was on middle class salaried and unsalaried women who were heads of families. 1.8 Definition of Key Terms Psychosocial health: a state of mental, emotional, social, and spiritual well-being whereby the thinking portion of psychosocial health is known as mental health De facto female headed households: households where men, although present, do not contribute to the household income Chapter 2 Literature Review This chapter is categorised into three major sections, which are (i) conceptual framework, (ii) theoretical framework and (iii) review of related studies. The chapter reviews the extant female headed household literature. It shows how this study draws and borrows from the existing scholarship with the aim of showing how this study departs and differs from other scholars. It also engages with the scholars of psychological and social discourses discerning where they agree and disagree in order to benefit from existing debates and discussions. Conceptual framework This section will analyse the major concepts in this study. 2.1.1 Female Headed Households. (FHH) There has been conflicting definitions of the term Female Headed Households depending on the social constructs of individual communities. The main emphasis being on the nature of the families, society and cultural beliefs of an individual society or community. Husbands who are physically present but not involved in the active family upkeep may just be as useless as absent careless husbands. Mohammedadem (2012) is of the view that, “a female headed household is classified in most national and international data sources as a unit where an adult woman (usually with children) resides without a male partner.” In other words, a head of household is female in the absences of a co-resident legal or common law spouse or, in some cases, another adult male such as a father or brother (Chant, 1997). Female headed households are the types of households where women are responsible for the upkeep of the family i.e taking an upper hand into the family livelihoods. Habib (2012) views female heads of households in two classes which are de jure/legal women heads of households i.e. (widowed, divorced, abandoned and single women) who support themselves and their dependents, and de facto female heads of household i.e (women who head their households due to male migration or married women who are financially responsible for their households due to male’s disability, unemployment or reluctance to earn a living. In this study, the main focus will be on the psycho-social issues affecting the de-facto female heads of households. Like female heads of households, de facto female heads are faced with a lot of problems if not worse off which they do not have avenues to lessen them since the status of de facto female heads of households is determined by the individual’s perceptions considering the society one is coming from. In most cases, de facto female heads of households are not recognised as all the credit is given to their husbands since they are considered the heads of the families especially in the patriarchal societies like Zimbabwe. Literature has always seen FHHs at a great disadvantage in most communities despite race, class or nationality. Ragasa, Berhane, Tadesse, & Taffesse (2012) analysed the gender difference in access to extension services and how this translated to observed differences in technology adoption and agricultural productivity in four major regions of Ethiopia. Their results suggested that female heads of households were less likely to get extension services and less likely to access quality services than their male counterparts after controlling for plot, household, and village level characteristics. This shows how differently society and authorities treat FHHs from male headed households which in turn impact negatively on the female heads of households no matter how much effort they can put into trying to live a normal life hence the need for this study to advocate for FHHs and find ways to alleviate stigma and discrimination on FHHs through empowerment. Unlike Ragasa, Schatz, Madhavan & Williams (2011) examine AIDS-related hardships in rural South Africa and assert that, mainstream research and the popular media often equate female headship with household vulnerabilities, crisis and disorganisation. In their study, they looked at the response to AIDS related illness, death or caring for orphaned children, focusing on female heads’ financial and social resources and how these resources buffered against hardships in households affected by AIDS. Their findings had some important policy implications both in terms of identifying individual and household vulnerabilities as well as leveraging the potential for resilience for FHHs in rural South African communities. This is in line with the focus of this study of trying to identify the psycho-social problems faced by de facto FHHs and therefore coming up with a model to assist such people in order to better their lives and have their voices head and recognised by the communities. 2.1.2 Psychological Issues in de facto FHHs It is very common for FHHs to face serious social and mental health problems due to the societal requirement and expectation in patriarchal communities such as Zimbabwe in particular. Psychosocial problems in FHHs are influenced by a multifaceted system rather than health-promoting activities, empowering both FHHs and civic society to cope with such problems and move towards health elevation seems indispensable. Minority groups such as de facto FHHs are more vulnerable when it comes to mental health as compared to other groups the main reason being acceptance of multiple responsibilities. Maleki, Maleki, Maleki & Mirziee (2011) are of the assertion that, Psychologists believe that FHHs suffer physical, psychological, and emotional difficulties, FHHs experience stress and anxiety more than other women. Impairment of self-esteem and isolationism is more observed in FHHs. 2.2 Review of related studies 2.2.1 Studies from America In addition to the studies by Chant, Ragasa and others, Sarla Sharma, (1984) presented an in-depth profile of women-headed families by exploring the problems of single mothers which are broken down into practical problems of change in status, finances, maintenance of the household, overtaxing of their strength, and rearing of children; the second being psychological and personal problems of loneliness, boredom, loss of self-esteem, feeling trapped, sense of guilt, insecurity, sexual satisfaction, shelter, and employment. Coping strategies such as employment, renting accommodation, two-home parenting, re-marriage, support systems, as well as use of psychotherapy. The researchers proceeded to evaluate single motherhood as an opportunity for self-development and building support systems. The researchers offered suggestions for policy making by local, state, and federal government agencies and private sector, and stressed the need for a systematic on-going research. This literature falls in line with the current study as it provides confirmation and information related to psychological and social problems faced by FHHs as well as solutions which have once been identified in the American community which can help in analysing the outcomes of the this study and may be in a position to be played with depending on the data collected, views and perceptions of the participants as well as the researcher’s perceptions. 2.2.2 Studies from Asia Habib (2010) explored the Socio-Psychological Status of Female Heads of households in Rajshahi City, Bangladesh. The women surveyed included both de jure/legal women heads of households i.e (widowed, divorced, abandoned and single women) who supported themselves and their dependants, and de facto female heads of households i.e (women who headed their households due to male migration or married women who were financially responsible for their households due to male’s disability, unemployment or reluctance to earn a living). Their conclusion was that, the female heads in Bangladesh experienced the burden of multidimensional poverty, arising from the absence of support from an adult male and struggle to earn a livelihood as females and as heads of the households. In relation to the current study, de-facto female heads of households are the ones to be focused and how much they can be assisted in order to live a normal life free from psychological and social problems as well as poverty. Kabir (2011) looked at how poverty, vulnerability and the coping strategies of Monga (seasonal severe food insecurity) affected FHHs in Bangladesh. While different studies today are showing that FHHs are not necessarily the poorest of the poor, this study argued that the FHHs in a region affected by monga were still the poorest of the poor. The researchers examined how Monga impacted on FHHs differently, and also how the coping strategies of the households differed based on prevailing gender relations. To do so, it applied LSA and its further development RLS approach. The study also investigated how different anti-poverty programs in the area addressed female-headed and male-headed households’ poverty and vulnerable situation in a gender insensitive manner. In relation to Nalule, Tekelhaimanot, Horrell & Krishman and others, Vecchio (1998) in Poverty, Female-Headed Households, and Sustainable Economic Development, examined FHHs in the world economy, aspects of their poverty, and their implications for sustainable development. Following a general discussion of FHHs in the world community, the work discussed FHHs in two regions of India one being an example of unsuccessful development and the other of successful development. The research was based on fieldwork in five rural villages. One village comprising mostly female headed households provided a unique case study. The other four villages included both male and female headed households with a high proportion of FHHs. Their results suggested that FHHs dominated the poorer section of the community, and women’s access to resources was limited by cultural, social and economic influences. Women particularly those in FHHs, bear the heaviest burdens in times of economic hardship as they face more forms of discrimination outside the home than women from male headed households. They have fewer customary rights but greater freedom of movement and more opportunities for paid employment. And it was confirmed that sustainable development programmes focusing on women’s development and self-responsibility have helped to lift the economic status of FHHs. This study borrowed from such scholars as they go deeper in analysing and assessing the situations faced by FHHs in times of hardships like the current economic situation in Zimbabwe. Fadaak (2012) assessed poor female headed households and programmes in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia. The study focused on female poverty in Saudi society, focusing on poor female headed households in Jeddah City. It explored the social cultural and demographic characteristics of such families. It highlighted the social reality of FHHs with a focus on the details of their everyday lives and their relationships with social support institutions. The sample consisted of FHHs, represented by their female heads, selected by marital status according to five sub groups widows families, divorced women’s families, abandoned women’s families, prisoners’ wives’ families and married women’s families. A further sample comprised informants from different governmental and non-governmental department. The findings highlighted the social, cultural and demographic characteristics of poor FHHs. The findings also showed how the sub categories and their female heads struggled daily and how they had similar experiences in some aspects of the public realms but quite different experiences in the private realms. The study concluded with important strategic recommendations aimed at reforming the welfare system, suggesting integrated social policies to eradicate poverty, particularly among FHHs. In relation to this study, sustainable development programmes are expected to be established in order to come up with a model to alleviate psychosocial problems faced by de-facto female heads of households. 2.2.3 STUDIES FROM AFRICA Nalule (2015) researched on the livelihoods of female headed households in Namuwongo Slum, Kampala the Capital City of Uganda. The study explored the trajectory of FHHs to Namuwongo slum, their livelihood challenges, and their livelihood strategies for survival. The researchers collected data materials through qualitative methods, such as in–depth interviews and observations. The Sustainable Livelihood Approach and Empowerment were adopted as theoretical frameworks for analysis. The researchers established a number of reasons as to why some slum households were female headed. These reasons included widowhood, separation and divorce. Extreme poverty appeared as a common feature among FHHs. Despite low levels of education and lack of regular employment, leaving the FHHs vulnerable; this study demonstrated that their ability to improvise alternatives for their survival was surprisingly strong. FHHs were running informal businesses and involved themselves in casual work to create income for their households. FHHs also used human capital in the form of family labour as a way of securing financial capital. Some also involved children in income-generating activities as a livelihood strategy. Social capital among the FHHs was significant because they shared information, ideas, and livelihood resources to build their assets and find solutions to their problems. Neighbours and relatives were also used as a strategy to lessen financial constraints. The female heads of households were members of local savings groups and projects, such as the sisterhood project that offered financial assistance to their households. These projects also aided them in sending their children to school. The results of this study indicated that while FHHs managed to get by, they faced some challenges which included limited resources, lack of decent housing and infrastructure, and health risks entailed in living in the slum, such as lack of enough clean and piped water, poor drainage and flooding after heavy rainfalls. Fikirte Demissie Tulu (2011) in Survival Mechanisms of Female-Headed Households: In Urban Informal Sectors: The case of Fiche Town in Oromia National Regional state of Ethiopia and confirmed the crucial role of the urban informal sector in creating employment opportunities for unemployed and also as a livelihood for millions of people in developing countries like Ethiopia. The study focused on the survival mechanism of female headed households in the urban informal sectors in Fiche town. In the study the reasons for the females becoming heads of households, types of informal activities, factors that forced these households head to join the informal sector, problems and government plans towards the informal sector were noted. Moreover the government policy and non-governmental organisations activities attempted to alleviate the problems that most FHHs have faced financially by giving credit services. On the basis of its findings, the study recommended that concerned bodies needed to create awareness, prepare different trainings give credit on time and follow up activities of female households heads in Fiche town. Tekelhaimanot (2011) focused on the socio-economic situation of female headed households in Bole Sub-city in Addis Ababa. He identified factors that make women lone mothers. It posited light on their socio-economic situation and the problems faced by heads of FHHs. In discussing coping strategies adopted to tackle the problems among the various factors that resulted in being female headed households, divorce was the major factor, financial problems, infidelity, sexual incompatibility, drunkenness of husbands and different abuses perpetrated against wives led to the disruption of marriages. Moreover, the death of husbands, childbearing outside the wedlock, abandonment by a partner, separation and polygamous marriages were also identified reasons for the emergence of causing female headships. FHHs were living in different socio-economic conditions. Regarding their economic conditions, the majority were self-employed while others were employed, wage earners and unemployed as found out in the research in relation to their occupation, most of them were engaged in petty trading activities while others were office workers and daily laborers. Mossa Endris (2010) in status of FHHs in Rural Ethiopia, introduced an anthropological research work about the status of rural FHHs in Libo Kemkem Woreda. The research was such that FHHs are increasingly becoming common in almost all parts of the world. Households, especially which are headed by women lack the basic assets that could help them survive through harsh living situations. The burden of poverty falls disproportionately on women and more so on households headed by women. Several factors including social, cultural, economic, political, technological and legal framework of the country were regarded as causes of the impoverishment of FHHs. However, socio-cultural factors were a main condition for the disadvantage position of FHHs in the rural society. There were now some efforts made by governmental and non-governmental organisations to improve the life of rural FHHs in the regions. Mohammedadem (2012). Explored the Resilience of female headed farming households in times of drought in Enderta woreda, female headed households Tigray, Ethiopia. The researcher defined resilience as a form of indigenous or exogenous knowledge which can directly contribute to household’s capabilities and sustainable livelihoods. The indigenous knowledge which can potentially contribute to increased household’s adaptive capacity is an important contributing factor in building household’s resilience even in the absence of external support. However, in building up the resilience of small scale farming households’ coherent integration of indigenous knowledge with new source of knowledge is an important entry point. To open up this entry point, protection and documentation of indigenous knowledge of different household structures (Female, male and child headed households) and access to new knowledge through responsible organisations is compulsory. Drought affects agricultural (crop and livestock) production. Consequently, it increased vulnerability of small-scale farming households and enhanced natural resources deterioration. Small-scale farming families had a range of strategies to cope with impact of drought. Households which belonged to different socio-economic groups employed different strategies to earn their own means of living which, in turn, achieved different levels of resilience to food security. Female headed households were the sub-set of these different socioeconomic structures with different strategies and levels of resilience. A female headed household is classified in most national and international data sources as a unit where an adult woman (usually with children) resides without a male partner. In other words, a head of household is female in the absences of a co-resident legal or common law spouse or, in some cases, another adult male such as a father or brother (Chant, 1997). Mohammedadem’s objective was to increase understanding of resilience capabilities and coping strategies of FHHs by further exploring the resilience and coping strategies of female headed farming households in Enderta, Tigray during 1984 drought season. To meet their objectives one main and two sub-research questions were formulated as follows: What is resilience capabilities of female headed farming households in times of drought? What were the coping strategies (endogenous knowledge) of female headed farming households in times of drought in Enderta, Tigray? And What organisational factors or actions (exogenous knowledge) influenced resilience capabilities of female headed farming households? To explore the resilience capability of female headed farming households in times of drought this study used a case study of Endertaworeda, Tabia Mariamdehan FHH Tigray, Ethiopia in times of drought. This strategy was employed in order to get in depth information about the livelihoods strategies of respondents and research area. To gain the necessary support and facilitation introduction of research proposal was conducted at different relevant levels. To collect primary data purposive sampling technique was used. Twenty individual female FHHs were interviewed, two FGD and planned observation was conducted. Five key informants were interviewed to collect secondary data background information. Based on the findings of this study the availability and access to natural resources initiated the resilient female headed household to look at alternative sources of income. Access by the poor to natural resources (land, forests, water, fisheries, pastures etc.), is essential for sustainable poverty reduction. The livelihoods of rural people without access, or with very limited access to natural resources are vulnerable because they have difficulty in obtaining food, accumulating other assets, and recovering after natural or market shock or misfortunes. Furthermore, Ellis and Allison stated, that diversification assists households to insulate themselves from environmental and economic shocks, trends and seasonality in effect, to be less vulnerable. Livelihoods diversification is complex, and strategies can include enterprise development. Therefore, implication of the study is policy makers should tailor their food security strategies according to existing reality and variety needs of population. Comprehending the driving factors of each livelihood strategy is therefore crucial for improving the response mechanisms related to food insecurity and poverty. In relation to the current study, most solutions here provided seem to focus more on de-jure FHHs and not realising that the same and most similar problems if not worse affect de-facto FHHs and they are in dire need of assistance from the responsible authorities and organisations which represents women and children as well as considered in the policy making of the countries they are living. 2.2.4 Studies from Zimbabwe Horrell and Krishnan (2006) conducted a household survey in rural Zimbabwe which they used to compare the position of de-facto and de-jure female-headed households to those with a male head. Data was collected from about three hundred households across three rural areas in Zimbabwe. Collected data was used to explore the position of types of FHHs which were characterised by different forms of poverty that impacted on their ability to improve agricultural productivity. However, once inputs were accounted for, it was only for growing cotton that FHHs’ productivity appeared lower than that found for male-headed households. General poverty alleviation policies were meant to benefit the female-headed households but specific interventions via extension services and access to marketing consortia were also indicated. The researchers observed that, the Shona society was deeply patriarchal. Traditionally bride wealth payments (lobola) were paid by men to women's families and the woman would move to her husband’s home after the birth of the first child. Then the woman became subject to supervision by older female members of the man's family therefore enjoying little if not no power within her household. In order to maintain land and asset holdings within the male descendant group, all inheritances and most power travelled through the male line. Polygamy was allowed although not widespread, men had to show their capacity by supporting their first wife and family adequately before considering taking a second wife, and this meant that, in order for men to have polygamous relationship, they would have acquired more wealth and assets (Bourdillon 1976). The researchers realised that, both Communal and state laws supported male authority, married women were effectively treated as minors under the laws. They were not issued land in their own right in the resettlement areas and were unable to enter into contracts without their husband's joint involvement, thus they could not own property independently. The results of this study showed that, de facto female-headed households although not usually income poor, they lacked agricultural production assets. Thus with more resources and support from extension services FHHs may be well placed to improve their position through, crop expansion. Even without additional resources, greater profitability could be achieved from their existing agricultural output through access to better selling networks and buying groups for inputs. De jure female-headed households were likely to be amongst the very poor owing to lack of income. However, both the de facto and de jure FHHs with the exception of livestock, they had similar physical asset bases to male-headed households. The researchers concluded that, lack of inputs constrained FHHs productivity but through manipulation of better extension services availability might be key to improving FHHs lives through allowing asset accumulation which might enable them to climb out of poverty. In relation to the current study, the above literature will give a guideline and outline of the Shona speaking communities which are patriarchal and this study will focus on the Mt Pleasant area of Harare which is dominated by more or less of the Shona speaking people and probably some borrowed and foreign ethnic groups which may provide different views and perceptions depending on their social constructs. The main advantage of involving different ethnic groups will help enrich the study through sharing of different ideas and perceptions which will strengthen the model and make it more sustainable and culturally sensitive. 2.3 Theoretical framework This study is premised on the Gender Schema Theory which asserts that children learn about male and female roles from the culture in which they live and adjust their behavior to align with the gender norms of their culture from the earliest stages of social development (Kendra Cherry 2019). The Sustainable Livelihood Approach which is a tool for development work, by highlighting how to understand, analyse and describe the main factors that affect the livelihoods of the FHHs. And the Macro-sociological Theory which focuses on social structures, social processes and problems and their interrelationships. For example, the effects of Female Headship on women’s psycho-social status or how gender and social constructs affect de facto FHHs wellbeing. This approach tends to minimise people’s ability to act and overcome the limits of social structures; macro-sociological theory can take the interpretive perspective, normative or conflict perspective. 2.3.1 Gender Schema theory Gender schema theory was introduced by Sandra Bern in 1981 influenced by the cognitive revolution as well as her desire to remedy what she believed to be shortcomings in the psychoanalytic and social learning theories of the time. Bern asserted that children learn about male and female roles from the culture in which they live. According to the theory, children adjust their behavior to align with the gender norms of their culture from the earliest stages of social development (Bern, S. 1994; Kendra Cherry. 2019). Bern asserts that a child’s cognitive development combined with societal influences largely influence the patterns of thoughts/schemas that dictate male and female traits. Gender schemas have an impact on how people process information as well as on the attitudes and beliefs that direct "gender-appropriate" behaviour. It also dictates a person’s values and potential. In this instance it will explore the understanding of the FHHs in a patriarchal society which is cultured to believe that a woman’s role is in caring and raising of children while submitting to their husbands and a man’s role is in work and industry which empowers the men to satisfy the three Ps of patriarchy which are provision, procreation and protection. 2.3.2 The Sustainable Livelihood Approach The sustainable livelihood approach was initiated by Robert Chambers in the 1980s, and has been further developed by Chambers, Conway and others in the 1990s (DFID, 2000, 1.2). The sustainable livelihood approach framework is a tool for development work, by highlighting how to understand, analyse and describe the main factors that affect the livelihoods of the FHHs. According to DFID (2000) a sustainable livelihood is; “comprised of the capabilities, assets (both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, while not undermining the natural resource base”. In this case, the sustainable livelihood framework will describe what development dedicated to FHHs should focus on to create sustainable livelihoods for the FHHs. The basic principle is that development work has to focus on people – which means the focus is to be concentrated on what matters for the FHHs, how people and their cultures are different, and how this affects the way they understand and appreciate livelihoods. Another principle is that the female heads of households themselves have to be key actors in identifying the important aspects of their own livelihoods. The female heads of households know what matters to them, and outsiders have to listen to their priorities instead of assuming that their own values and ideas are as good or better. In order to allow for participation and partnership to become essential factors in improving lives of the FHHs, they have to be actively part of the development work, hence FHHs will be empowered and live an independent life. The framework also emphasises the principle that there has to be a strong link between macro and micro politics, since these are interdependent. The macro politics are responsible for the main structures and processes in an area and the female heads of households have to adapt to and try to enhance their livelihoods through these. The last basic principle is that development has to have a long-term focus, which is important that FHHs solutions will be sustainable in the future. According to Scoones (1998;2009), the sustainable livelihood framework can be used as a tool for analysis of households, individuals and categories of people in different settings because of its emphasis on reality based on the perspectives of particular individuals. Therefore, the sustainable livelihoods approach will be very useful in this study for it will enable the researcher to examine and understand the livelihoods of female headed households in Mt Pleasant area from their own perspectives. The researchers will be able to examine the nature of FHHs capitals i.e. human, natural, social, psychological and financial capitals and the structures that limit or enhance their access to resources to achieve their desired livelihoods. Also initiatives have to be put in place which allows FHHs to come up with livelihood strategies that require being creative and innovative in terms of obtaining income to survive shocks and stresses that individuals may face in the situation where a livelihood activity is not providing the means of survival. The sustainable livelihood approach, will explore livelihood outcomes, focusing on how the livelihood strategies selected by individuals contribute to their household wellbeing, poverty reduction, and livelihood adaptation in their contexts in relation to the betterment or destruction of their households livelihoods. CHAPTER THREE Research Methodology 3.1 Research Approach This study adopts a qualitative approach. Qualitative research is investigational research where the information are not as numbers (Punch 1998) a logical technique for perception to accumulate non-numerical information which "alludes to the implications, ideas definitions, qualities, similitudes, images, and portrayals of things" and not to their checks or measures. The Qualitative methodology will empower the top to bottom comprehension of the issues understudy using in-depth interviews and researcher’s perceptions. Qualitative research will be utilized to get a comprehension of the perspectives and view of the participants in this study. 3.2 Research Design This study took the ethnographic contextual investigation research plan. Ethnographic contextual analysis enables the specialist to have an "inductive analytical procedure" (Merriam and Associates, 2002) that enabled the examination to comprehend the psychosocial issues exuding from de facto FHHs. Waring, Marshall and Bishop (2014) are of the statement that, "In expansive terms, ethnography is worried about building up a rich depiction and interpretative comprehension of how various individuals, networks or societies “experience, interpret and structure their lives”. Ethnography is especially fit to this study by giving understanding into how individuals perceive the issue of the FHHs through subjectivism and socially educated sense-production; how FHHs are seen and comprehended among various gatherings or networks; the significance of sexual orientation jobs/responsibilities, de-rolling and changing in accordance with the dynamic ways of life of the world which adds to the family wellbeing and the community at large. In connection to this study, ethnography paves way for exploratory comprehension of de facto FHHs as a marginalised group. Ethnography will give a nitty gritty and all-encompassing comprehension of the mental and social issues that influence the de facto female heads of family units. 3.3 Population and Sampling The Mt Pleasant area is a medium density suburb located in the northern part of Harare. Mt Pleasant comprised of people from different corners of the world. In Mt Pleasant the researcher collected data for this study through the use of in-depth interviews from a sample of twenty one legally married women who felt that they headed their households . All informants participated in the study and there was a hundred percent response rate, which enabled analysis and reporting of the findings. All respondents were female providers who felt that they were taking the advantage in dealing with their families in the presents of their male accomplices. This study utilised snowball sampling. Snowball sampling is a non-likelihood inspecting strategy where members enroll different members for a test or study (Patton. 2002: Cresswell and Plano Clark 2011). Snowball sampling is utilised where potential members are elusive like for this situation the theme is a beat delicate and progressively close to home (Palys. 2008), thus a portion of the individuals particularly the Shona clan may perceive it so difficult to volunteer for cooperation as they restrict sharing of personal information. The researcher was not simply inspired by the psychosocial impacts of female-headed families by and large, however she likewise needed to have the option to build up the recognitions and perspectives on the general public towards ladies in de facto FHHs. Ladies heading families in the classification depicted were key sources to this examination. 3.3.1 Level of Education The study sought to identify the level of education of the respondents. The purpose was to establish the link between their level of education with their occupation and income levels. Respondents were asked the highest level of education attained, 45% had attained University qualifications, 30% had tertiary education, 15% had secondary education while 10% had attained primary levels of education. The majority had University and tertiary level of education and was therefore qualified to apply for formal or better paying jobs that would enhance their living standards. Most of them had to upgrade their educational qualifications through correspondence in an endeavour to upgrade their own lifestyles. The minority reported that they came from poor families and were school drop outs due to lack of school fees, hence, they engaged in early marriages in response to poverty. 3.3.2 Religion In the respondents’ religious affiliations, there were 5 categories: Catholic, Pentecostal, Apostolic, ZAOGA and Traditional African Cultures. Most respondents were Pentecostal (25%). Catholics accounted for (22%). Apostolic (20%), ZAOGA (18%) and African Traditional culture (15%). This was considered with a view to establishing whether any of the respondents had the privilege of accessing any form of emotional, social, psychological or financial support from their religious circles that would form part of extenuating avenues. Most of them confirmed the fellowships they shared with their religious colleagues as a way of sharing their experiences, advice and encouragement. 3.4 Data Collection Instruments The researcher utilised the interview guide for information accumulation. Subjective research necessitated that an interview guide be utilised as a set up instrument of information gathering in order to get the ideal outcomes. The most critical favorable position introduced using the interview guide was its top to bottom meeting's capacity to gather profound, passionate and non-verbal data. The mix of the top to bottom meetings and the researcher's appraisal and perceptions through direct communication with the members comprehended the results of the study. The most significant advantage presented through the use of the interview guide was its ability to collect deep, emotional and nonverbal information. In depth interviews are more useful where there are limitations in the nature of the study which made it more suitable for this study. In depth interviews allowed participants to share their opinions without bias from other participants, elicit more information and deliver more value from each participant, more flexible and cost effective. In depth interviews enhanced a high rate of completion respondents are unlikely to drop off before completion, especially with in person interviews. The researcher had the chance to acquire more qualitative data and explore answers with the respondents and the interviewer probing and uncovering greater insights than with other methods. The combination of the in depth interviews and the researcher’s assessment and observations through direct interaction with the participants enhanced the findings of the study. 3.5 Research Procedure Using the research letter obtained from the Great Zimbabwe University, the researcher explained to participants the reason, aims and objectives of the study, research procedure and assures them that they had the freedom of decision making, when they opted to drop out in the middle of the process they were free to do so. Participants were assured of their confidentiality and had to willingly participate in the project. Willing participants had the right to decide whether they wanted to be recorded or they wanted their responses written down. Participants were informed that there participation was voluntary since the research was not funded. Participants were asked to fill in a participant consent form. In the cases where participants agreed to recording of interviews, the researcher utilised an audio recorder to record the interviews whilst the participants remained anonymous. The researcher also reviewed secondary literature from some scholarly journals. The researcher administered interviews to women who perceived themselves as heads of their households. Participants were approached to fill in a participant consent form and after that the researcher carried out interviews to ladies who suited the criteria for this study. At the end of the research, the researcher triangulated the data collected and observations together with primary and secondary literature to come up with the generalisable results. 3.6 Pre-test A pre-test of the instruments was done with at least three women who perceived themselves as de facto female heads of households. The participants were purposively selected from the researcher’s clients who presented with psychosocial issues related to FHHs challenges. The instrument was the in-depth interview guard as well as the researcher’s observations. 3.7 Data Analysis and Interpretation Content analysis was used to analyse data (mainly because of its advantage to analyse social phenomena in contrast to simulating social experiences or collecting survey answers. Content analysis was valuable in this study because it afforded the recovery and examination of the nuances of behaviors, participants’ perceptions, and societal tendencies (Hsieh & Shannon. 2005). Content analysis allowed the researcher to analyse socio-cognitive and perceptual constructs that were difficult to study via traditional quantitative archival methods, while at the same time, gathering large samples that may be difficult to employ in purely qualitative studies. 3.8 Ethical Considerations Moral standards were seen in completing the study. Respondents were completely educated about the research purpose and proceedings. Respondents were told before the research that they won't be compelled to partake in the exploration and that the data they gave was carefully utilised to scholastic purposes just and in this way privacy was kept up. In such manner, members were required to fill in a participant consent form which in addition to other things was plainly to feature their rights as they took an interest in the study. Confidentiality was completely kept up in this examination as the exploration discoveries were imparted to the expert partners only and however, at the end of the day, names of participants remained confidential. CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 4.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter presents and analyses results of the study. Data was analysed using content analysis. Data was presented in codes that were related to the main codes emanating from the data collected in line with the research objectives for this study. The aim of this study was to identify and evaluate the psychosocial issues involved in de facto women headed families. The study first identified types of FHHs, then collected data on the social issues that affected women in de facto FHHs in line with the objective: Identify social issues that de facto FHH face. These form the first section of the chapter. The second part of the chapter will focus on psychological issues that affected women in de facto FHHs in line with the objective: Analyse psychological issues affecting de facto FHH. The study’s sample size for in-depth interviews was twenty one women who felt that they head their households. All informants participated in the study and there was a hundred percent response rate, which enabled analysis and reporting of the findings. 4.1 Types of de facto FHHs The study sought to identify the types of de facto FHHs status of the respondents who in this case were involved in the research. This was to determine whether the female heads’ husbands were either unemployed, low income earners, had displaced priorities, were polygamous or left the country for greener pastures (labour migration). Out of twenty one participants, six were not employed and had no source of income, five had displaced priorities (despite the fact that they could afford to take care of their families, they decided to abandon their responsibilities as heads of families whilst they watched their wives struggling to take care of the families single handedly), five had their husbands involved in labour migration (had to seek for greener pastures due to the country’s economic dwindling), three were of low income generation and two were involved with polygamous/promiscuous partners. This identification of types of de facto FHHs helped the study realise that there are some similarities and differences in issues that arise from similar and different types of de facto FHHs. 4.2 Poverty in de facto FHHs Findings confirmed that FHHs experienced poverty related issues. This was proved to have negative consequences on social networks in their communities. Many participants reported that they suffered social discrimination; they were stigmatised and excluded on account of their social status, poverty and the perception that they may be disrespectful to their husbands because of their self-confidence and status. Some of the participants said that due to difficulties in running their households as well as getting enough income, they were forced to engage in dirty deals as well as sexual activities in exchange for money or groceries. In one case the participant had this to say; “….. it surprises me when my husband comes home to eat the food that he doesn’t know where and how it was acquired. He just finds everything glooming in the house, children not sent back from school and surprisingly he goes ahead to demand money from me to go and collect his ARVs. Some men are meant to be animals not humans. How do you expect me to have intimate feelings for such an idol of a man. I would rather get satisfaction from real men who know what to do for and with women than that ‘hip of shit’ of a man…”(Nicky) In this case, the woman is clearly expressing bitterness towards her husband. It is a clear sign that she is just staying in the marriage for the sake of being married but in reality the marriage is already broken. Amongst the 21 women interviewed, about 12 of them expressed frustration towards their marriages one way or the other. In other interviews, the respondents had this to say, “Where there are no policemen there is no money, so anything that puts money in my pocket is worth dying for. You don’t expect me to wait for a man who cannot have the courage to take a very simple risk, he is a good for nothing man.” (Connie FHH) “Risk takers are the most successful people in the world. You cannot be successful in Zimbabwe if you are not a thief. What is important is to make sure that you are not caught. As for my husband, he must dress in a petticoat…” (Monica) “My seven year old son is man enough than his useless father. If I had to turn back the hands of time, I would rather stay single than marrying a bastard of a man like him…” (Nicole) From the above quotations, it is clear that some de facto FHHs take risks of getting convicted, for criminal issues in the effort to try and alleviate poverty in their households. Men in this case seemed to be afraid of taking risks and sacrifices for their families hence their spouses go out of their way to engage in somewhat illegal activities in order to provide for their husbands as well as their children. Women in this case are expressing bitterness and regret towards their husband’s behaviours which they feel is not good enough for their marriages to the extent of losing interest in the marriages themselves. It is clear that if these men could take the lead and become responsible for the upkeep of their families, these women could have respect for their husbands as their belittling is emanating from the husbands’ lack of masculinity. Such issues cannot be expected to happen in male headed households as the men will be taking the leadership role and women are expected to fully submit to their husbands and their providers. This information satisfies the objective of social issues in de facto FHHs and clarifies the fact of psychological issues of anger, hostility and hopelessness due to regrets and furry. 4.2.1 Stigma, discrimination and social exclusion In this study, it was established that, stigma, discrimination and social exclusion on FHHs have also impacted on the poverty status of their households. Poverty intertwined with marital status, as well as myths that ‘financially stable women are disrespectful to their husbands’ exposed female heads to general social stigma attached to social constructs, poverty and the status of household headship. Findings show that families headed by females are viewed as poor. Poverty is aligned to ‘petticoat governments’ woman headship status meant to stigmatise and label such households. These findings are well illustrated by quotations below; “There is a common belief in our society that if a woman tends to be wiser than her husband, it just simply means that ‘akapfuhwira murume kuti azungaire’ meaning she intoxicated her husband with a love portion. It used to hurt me during the early days, but as of late I have adopted the ‘I don’t care’ attitude ………”(Lisa FHH) “………. Especially my mother in-law gets so annoying and disrespectful. They do not understand that their relative ‘aneshavi rehurombe’ has a spirit of poverty; he cannot appreciate the little that I do for them. They expect more than enough from me because they believe that I am the one who caused their relative to be in this mess, yet he is the trouble cause of all what we are now going through……. “(Carol FHH who had her husband fired for corruption and his license revoked, hence, can no longer practice as an auditor). Respondents informed that their households were perceived inferior because of being headed by women as opposed to those headed by men. This emanated from the traditional belief and practice entrenched in patriarchal family structures that men head households. In this study, such households headed by women were stigmatised basing on the deviating social and cultural norms. Therefore, female heads of households were exposed to profiling and labeling as captured below; “The society we are living in believes that being married is a norm. Therefore, one ends up sticking to the man no matter how useless he proves to be for the sake of being a married woman. Yet I might be better off as a divorcee as I will be having my freedom of choice, decision making and movements without any one monitoring me or feeling jealousy of me as such useless men have a very high sense of insecurity…” (Nico FHH) This study saw the status of poverty causing discrimination of FHHs and removal from women’s groups due to failure in making meaningful influences and financial savings. In some quotes, respondents had to make such statements as; “I got fired from the roundtable we had started with my colleagues because I failed to contribute for only two months. They failed to consider my plea to cover up my crisis which pained me as I had worked all my life for this hoping that it was going to help me boost my finances.” (Shamy FHH). “My application to join the local society was rejected several times because I failed to produce the initial joining fee which was far beyond my reach…”(Nomsa FHH) I resorted to vegetable vending as I could not qualify for Tupperware network business which I was expected to make the initial order of about 500Rands ….(Cola FHH) 4.2.2 Misconceptions/false impressions of interests and immorality Respondents cited that their social interests and norms were sometimes violated by the society as they were seen as people of loose morals or as single mothers considering some associations, experiences and places they find themselves in. Because of their husbands’ non-involvement in activities expected by the society to be masculine, female heads of households find themselves among other men for the survival of their families. This is clearly shown from the statements below. “…. Nowadays, because of the scarcity of electricity, you are forced to go and look for firewood in order to prepare meals for children. In so doing, men mistake you for single women and go on to propose love which at times makes you worried that am I presenting wrong personality or immoral moves that attract men…”(Collete FHH) “Can you imagine a man who cannot afford to put food on the table and claims to be a man among others? It is not possible with me, I have tried for years and I feel that it is enough; I no longer have any feelings for him. What kind of a man is he who is just able to shout at me, speak foul language and curse me in front of my children, yet he cannot stand up and show his powers on what he is expected of. I have already resorted to getting sexual satisfaction from real men who know their duties and responsibilities and not this good for nothing son of my mother-in-law……..” (Chihera FHH). “Sometimes I am forced to ignore my morals because of this economic situation in our country, as life is becoming so tough. In order for me to establish my business, I had to go through a lot and sometimes forced not to think twice about situations. I just tell myself that I don’t lose anything by giving men what they want in return of what I want; after all what is important is my family upkeep. My husband is afraid of taking risks but as long as one is not able to do that, then you have to be comfortable in your poverty which you have to fight very hard for your family to survive. I don’t care what I give; what is important to me is what I receive at the end of the day.” (Nancy FHH) The passion to fight poverty and have a better life sometimes forces FHHs to expose themselves to immoral behaviours and activities. And in some cases, women are found to be exposed to environments where only men dominate and they are misrepresented as if they are single, which puts them under pressure of explaining themselves to other men who would be showing interest. Although some FHHs resort to immoral behaviours some of them still make some efforts to stick to their marriages and avoid involvement in immoral activities. It is not by choice that such FHHs who engage in immoral activities had always planned for it but the economic deterioration and hyperinflation in Zimbabwe have contributed to so much difficulty in the economic stability in the country. Even in some male headed households this economy is not giving any mercy, this have left some FHHs vulnerable to engaging in any forms of activities for the survival of their households. In this generation it exposes FHHs and their spouses to STIs such as HIV/AIDS which is an epidemic that cannot be cured which risks the families to be left as child headed if the parents die. 4.2.3 Sexual stresses and deprivation of conjugal rights. In cases of long distance marriage relationships, respondents showed a lot of concern on their sexual life. The study showed that most women are sexually frustrated due to living apart. Although their husbands finance almost everything and their social statuses cannot be amongst the poor but suited those of the male headed families or even better. This is clearly shown in the statements below. “My sister, I am a human being and ‘haribikirwe porridge,’ meaning you can’t give it porridge, these men take us for granted when it comes to sex life. Do you think that he is spending his life working there tirelessly without finding sexual satisfaction? while surviving on what? It’s not possible. He left me to live with his young brother and sister so that they monitor my movements and he thinks I am dumb. He comes back once in a year or even two years. Yes he is sponsoring all our projects and my children and I are receiving the best education. I move around in posh cars but honestly I have to spend his money here and there to sponsor my little personal satisfactions as long as I don’t contract sexually transmitted diseases and falling pregnant ………” (Tsitsi FHH). “I have become such an emotional being ever since he left us for the diaspora. He left us in his parent’s house of which our bedrooms are so close to the extent that when they are having their thing, sometimes I hear them breathing heavily and it is so frustrating, you know what I mean. Because I have committed myself to him and my family, I had to buy myself a dildo which I have got so attached to as it satisfies me more than he can. With him I have never reached climax for the whole of our sex life, but with my ‘second man’ I always find myself in the seventh heaven………” (Pretty FHH). In relation to the DSM V the above quote shows that, one has acquired fetishistic disorders due to deprivation of sexual rights and opportunities. That is getting attached to the fetish objects and failure to gain satisfaction from living genital body parts is a sexual dysfunction. In another similar case the participant has the following to say “Masturbation is just something you cannot afford to try. I wonder why they say it is not good or healthy. As for me, that’s my life and I have grown to enjoy it every other day of my life and I find it safe as there is no risk of infections or pregnancy. I got this tip from my friend since I didn’t want the risk of emotional investment on another man or getting caught cheating. And ever since I started playing around with my clit, I have realised that there is nothing so important with sex than just having the best sensation on your clit. Mine is called ‘indigenisation ndoga ndonaka’ meaning, I am self-tasty and that’s it.” (Sandra FHH), This study has established that some female heads of households who were left by their husbands to seek greener pastures in the diaspora suffered sexual deprivation. In cases where one cannot abstain, they find themselves involved in sexual relationships with other men or find other means of satisfaction such as use of sex toys. This have seen some FHHs facing challenges in their normal sexual relationships but getting sexual gratification from non-living objects. The picture is complex and not straightforward because of differences in other cases where FHHs had resorted to extra marital sexual relationships although all the methods are considered immoral in the patriarchal society of Zimbabwe. This confirms the fact that de facto FHHs are faced with psychosocial issues which they cannot be able to discuss freely as the issues of sex and satisfaction are a taboo to discuss in the Shona community. 4.2.4 Diversified Income generating activities by de facto FHHs Findings also suggested that de facto FHHs engage in several income generating projects despite the fact that they may be on a salaried job. Such activities included network businesses such as Tianshi, Green World, Aloe Vera, and Tupperware which helped enhance their limited income. Some could do cross border trading traveling during the weekends or during their off days to purchase goods from nearby countries for re-sell back home. Some women could sell vegetables and fruits; engage in part time household chores, run kindergarten schools and offer typing and printing services. The aim being to reduce poverty impact in their households. The quotes below clearly shows this; “Every Friday I travel to South Africa or Zambia to buy clothing, groceries and African print materials for resale this side. I give credit to my partners who operate with me and we are able to make a little profit as compared to the US dollar error...” (Noma FHH) “Network business is a challenge; you have to work hard in order to grow through getting new members to join, due to the economic meltdown not a lot of people are interested in investing in such things.” (Moleen FHH) In this study, de facto FHHs participants had shown that life was so difficult for them in terms of financial stability but they did not make choices of giving up. Instead they diverted from one project to the other trying to identify opportunities that could help them raise some funds to cater for their households no matter how petty the projects were such as vending. It is also clear that, FHHs were discriminated and excluded from social groups due to incapacitation no matter how hard they worked for such groups to grow and the types of contributions and effort they had invested in such projects. FHHs proved to have the capabilities of resilience as they can be able to invest and start income generating projects no matter how difficult their lives turned to be, FHHs can be dynamic and creative in terms of livelihoods as they try to alleviate poverty in their households. Through economic frustrations, discrimination and social exclusion, FHHs suffer emotional and psychological humiliation, discouragements and vulnerability to poverty. This can only be helped through building a strong support system which includes their spouses and that strengthens their resilience and can afford them a good life. The passion to fight poverty and have a better life sometimes forces FHHs to expose themselves to immoral behaviours and activities. And in some cases, women are found to be exposed to environments where only men dominate and they are misrepresented as if they are single, which puts them under pressure of explaining themselves to other men who would be showing interest. Although some FHHs resort to immoral behaviours some of them still make some efforts to stick to their marriages and avoid involvement in immoral activities. It is not by choice that such FHHs who engage in immoral activities had always planned for it but the economic deterioration and hyperinflation in Zimbabwe have contributed to so much difficulty in the economic stability in the country. Even in some male headed households this economy is not giving any mercy, this have left some FHHs vulnerable to engaging in any forms of activities for the survival of their households. In this generation it exposes FHHs and their spouses to STIs such as HIV/AIDS which is an epidemic that cannot be cured which risks the families to be left as child headed if the parents die. 4.3 Psychological issues faced by de facto female heads of households The other main objective of this study was to establish psychological issues de facto female heads of households face. And the following results were found from the survey. 4.3.1 Psychological disorders faced by de facto FHHs In this study, it was established that due to the social problems de facto female heads of households face, some of them end up suffering from some clinical psychological disorders. The following verbatim quote clarifies how women were affected psychologically by the social relationships and lifestyles. “Marrying this man was the worst mistake I made in my entire life. It started when I discovered that my husband was marrying his ‘side chick’, she was so beautiful. Her makeup, dressing and perfume could tell me that I was not her match. I lived a bitter life; the fear of completely losing my husband triggered some episodes of depression.” (Noleen FHH) From the above quotation, the respondent has presented with psychological issues of low self-esteem, worthlessness, depression and anxiety due to the life style she had to live. She further narrated her story saying that “Whenever I held a knife I could feel like plunging it into someone to the extent that I prohibited my children from visiting the kitchen when I was cooking. If I attended funerals, I could have that strong feeling to divulge the corpse. If I was given a baby to carry on my lap I could just feel like smashing it. I was so confused then resorted to isolating myself and avoiding all social interactions since I could not predict what I was capable of doing next. Two years later I confided to my pastor who referred me to a psychiatrist. I was diagnosed of obsessive compulsive disorder. I got initiated on Serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs), after about a month the symptoms started subsiding and up to now I depend on medication and CBT counseling. I blame all that on my husband who failed to consider my feelings before he engaged with another woman…….” (Noleen FHH). This study also realised that, some de facto FHHs keep on clinging to their marriages due to fear of the unknown. They preferred to stay in those marriages despite the damages and pains they suffer as they believe that they are better off with their families than starting all over again. Out of the 21 respondents more than 50% confirmed that they would rather stay with their useless men than facing the agony of stigma and discrimination attached to divorce, separation and single motherhood. “…the better the devil you know, I would stay in this marriage although I feel that it is not working rather than finding myself single again…”(Noma FHH). “Nowadays men have resorted to be dependents; they are just like young children. As for me he has become my first born son, I have committed to provide for him as well as the children because what he only knows is to get himself high and steal what I work for. Yes it is frustrating but I have learnt to control my anger and live with it.” (Nico FHH). “I regret marrying my husband in the first place; I thought I was doing him a favor since the marriage was out of sympathy. He was my brother’s friend, during that time he was homeless and unemployed and I was a nurse doing well. He pretended to be the most perfect guy; I was the one to propose marriage to him. Got him a job, a white wedding, and gave him a life and three sons, only to use all that against me. I am being followed up on bipolar affective disorder now for the past seven years. I blame this on him since the diagnosis was done after a series of admissions in the hospital because of domestic abuse. I did all that a woman could do for her husband and family only to receive verbal, physical and emotional abuse from the man I thought I loved.” (Nico FHH). “It was out of the stresses of life that I was diagnosed of substance induced psychosis. You can imagine living the life of a widow with a husband in the house who instead of appreciating your efforts, he will be tormenting you all the time. A widow is better off since she knows that she is the only one to take care of her household. The only way I could forget about his actions was through drinking myself out until I got addicted and I could no longer sleep without having either cannabis or whisky.” (Shamy FHH). In alleviating the impact of psychological problems, female heads of households employed diverse pathways. These include creating support groups in which they could share their experiences and how to overcome them with others of the same status and challenges. This is confirmed by the quotes below. “After realising that there might be a lot of women out there who may be suffering what I had gone through without understanding really what they are going through and there was no organisation which could represent people with obsessive compulsive disorder. I decided to create a peer organisation called the O.C.D. center for life.” (Noleen FHH). “I hang out with my friends and come home half-drunk every time I find this life getting into my nerves so that I avoid going crazy…”(Carol FHH) This study has shown that some de facto FHHs are being exposed to different forms of psychological disorders due to the lifestyles they are living. Considering the hegemonic masculinities emphasis in the countries like Zimbabwe they are living in, this group of FHHs are a marginalised group of people yet vulnerable and are a special population that cannot be in a position to stand out due to fear of stigma, labeling and discrimination. In efforts to survive the wreath of the environment, de facto FHHs adopt some coping mechanisms which sometimes expose them to psychological disorders such as alcohol and substance induced psychosis. In some cases some de facto FHHs employ some defense mechanisms that lead to censuring and store the pains and frustrations they receive from their spouses and the environment in the sub conscious which leads to provocation of disorders such as bipolar affective disorder, obsessive compulsive disorders and many more. This study have seen some de facto FHHs persevering in marriages that hurt them the most due to the fear of being labeled as single parents since the single parent status is deeply discriminated in patriarchal societies like Zimbabwe that believe deeply in marriage and male headed households. The damage they receive in such marriages is worse than their fears of being labeled and stigmatised by the society. In some marriages women are better off as divorcees since that can give them peace of mind and freedom to plan their lives and engage in independent income generating activities without having anyone staging as a barrier on their way due to insecurities and jealousy of having them taken by other men. This could give FHHs an opportunity to explore more opportunities as they clearly do not need men in their lives as breadwinners or providers. As some women are capable of creating their own organisations, support systems and income generating project without the involvement of men, it is very clear that women can be capable of doing more given the opportunity to explore their capabilities holistically and invest their energies towards development of their households and communities. Resilience, perseverance and creativity in some women can make their livelihoods more meaningful than those of the male headed households. This FHH model is sustainable and durable in the sense that FHH can and do what Male Headed Households MHHs do in terms of incomes, jobs, housing, health, emotional support, education, stability, managing stress, caring for extended families and many more. CHAPTER FIVE Discussion, conclusion and recommendations 5.0 Introduction In this chapter, findings of the study were discussed. The relationship of the findings and the literature reviewed was also analysed. Conclusions and recommendations were then finally drawn. 5.1 Discussion All women who participated in this study were de facto FHHs. The provided sample size was reasonable enough to get an understanding of the psychosocial issues faced by de facto FHHs. This study’s findings have seen some de facto FHHs faced by social issues of poverty that affected not only them but their families as well. The average income of the de facto FHHs was way below the poverty datum line which forced them to forego some of the basics like medicals, school fees, and some basic food commodities as prices continued skyrocketing due to the economic meltdown no matter how hard they worked to deter the poverty issue. In relation to poverty and incapacitation, de facto FHHs found themselves facing stigmatisation, discrimination, social exclusion, misconceptions and involved in immoral behaviour in an effort to try and provide for their households. Madhavan & Williams (2011) are of the assertion that mainstream research and the popular media often equate FHHs with household vulnerabilities, crisis and disorganisation which reflected as one of the problems in the findings of this study. However, not all the de facto FHHs are mingling in poverty, some of them were evidently glooming as they appeared to be better off than the male headed households. Madhavan & Williams (2011) gave emphasis on the resilience by FHHs who employed different strategies of survival techniques ranging from formal or informal employment, renting accommodation, two-home parenting, support systems as well as consideration of psychotherapy. In this study the most resilient and persevere de facto FHHs employed similar strategies as network and online businesses, formal and informal employment, involvement in illegal but paying activities and many more. Mossa Endris (2010), Mohammedadem (2012) and Nalule (2015) concurred with Madhavan & Williams that FHHs are at risk of poverty, discrimination and exclusion which is also in line with the findings of this study. Although primary health care was almost free in some public medical institutions, due to the economic difficulties the institutions were operating on heavy shortages of medications so patients had to acquire prescriptions which they had to source medications from private pharmacies which charged their medication in foreign currency that was not accessible or out of reach during the period. These findings go hand in hand with Mwangi (2017) who established that FHHs can be incapacitated to the extent of failing to access the most important basic requirements for a household to be functional. This exacerbated an already critical situation because the female heads had no access to health care which translated to inability to fend for their families. When the family member or the female head is sick it translate to an extra burden on her already insufficient resources. Access to educational services was another challenge FHHs had to contend with because of their scanty resources. FHHs found it hard to send their children to schools of their choice because schools had to continuously request for top ups every now and then be it boarding or day schools. Also other requirements such as school uniforms, practical fees, school sports attires and food items for boarding scholars tuned out to be so expensive and out of reach for FHHs. This made life so difficult for female heads of households and their dependents. Shops and all service providers found themselves increasing their prices, subscriptions and taxes to suit the prevailing US dollar parallel rate of the period which was drastically skyrocketing. Although it is known that poverty is connected with stigma and segregation regardless of the household structure or headship (Mwangi 2017), such challenges however, exposes FHHs to disgrace and segregation in their communities. The incapacity to afford quality healthcare services and best education, the poor FHHs are reflected as mediocre and considered under different classes of incapability. In the poor-rich typical example, segregation is marked by the two living in dissimilar physical environments. Stigma attached to poverty is marked by daily language used to discuss poverty, which comprises of the public attitudes on the causes of poverty and labeled characteristics of poor people. Mwangi (2017) is of the assertion that, stigma linked to poverty generates a division between the “rich” and the “poor” classes and validates socioeconomic differences; it makes people living in poverty feel mortified and disqualified socially. However, it is vital to outline whether FHHs experience stigma entirely because of poverty as deliberated above or because of spousal status. This is because apart from the deep-rooted link between dearth, stigma and segregation on the other hand, the spousal status being incapacitated, irresponsible, promiscuous or polygamous is highly stigmatised on its own. This is especially in a patriarchal society with deep-rooted patriarchal patterns and structures. According to Robert (2015), this stigma stemming from spousal status, affects FHHs who are prosperous or rich. Societies sulk upon households with influential women as heads of households as this is perceived as in contrast to the norm. The dishonor is felt more when such influential parents or household heads are women (Parkh and Childs, 2016). The households are subject to labeling and stereotyping, concluding to the feeling of stigma and embarrassment. In fact, the study has shown that one form of poverty de facto FHHs in Mt Pleasant experience is social poverty. This is where they feel insufficient because of deficiency of male figures as providers. Madhavan & Williams (2011) asserted that, conventional research and the prevalent media often associate female headship with household susceptibilities, catastrophe and ineffectiveness. Poverty associated with other social problems through a cause-effect mechanism causes households to experience problems such as drug use, promiscuity and alcohol use. This is because the status of the lack compels household heads to compensate through such social vices (Ayuma, 2009).These studies support well the current study findings where de facto FHHs in Mt Pleasant were found to experience social issue of poverty in the form of the above consequences. After exploring social issues of poverty among de facto FHHs, the study also evaluated how these households alleviate the issues. Research findings showed that de facto FHHs deployed numerous schemes to alleviate poverty in their households. Ellis and Allison in Mohammedadem (2012) stated that, diversification assist households to insulate themselves from environmental and economic shocks, trends and seasonality in effect, to be less vulnerable. Livelihoods diversification is complex, and strategies can include enterprise development. In this study, de facto FHHs frequently engaged in several income generating activities such as online business, Tupperware business, importation of goods and groceries, consultancy, cooking and selling food, washing clothes as well as second hand clothes trading and vending to ensure that they provide for their households. The study also noted that some of the pathways such as sex in exchange of services were employed by some de facto FHHs to try and alleviate poverty. Schatz, Madhavan & Williams (2011); Habib (2010) and Vecchio (1998) are of the assertion that, FHHs is faced by poverty and discrimination despite the resilience that is displayed by the female heads to try and alleviate this poverty in their households. On the other hand Nalule (2015) is of the assertion that, women are capable of improvising alternatives for survival that is surprisingly strong. This was proved by women’s ability to run informal businesses, engage in formal and informal employment, create income generating activities such as establishing local savings groups and projects that offered financial assistance to their households. This study findings showed that due to the exodus of men’s’ labour migration fueled by the economic crisis in Zimbabwe, de facto FHHs faced some psychological problems such as sexual stresses and deprivation of conjugal rights which led to masturbation and fetishism. Relationship frustrations, insecurities and lack of support from spouses also led to major depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, obsessive compulsive disorders, low self-esteem, anger issues, and substance induced psychosis amongst some FHHs. This study confirmed that, some de facto FHHs suffered fetishism due to the sexual deprivation and the societal expectations which do not expect them to find sexual partners since they were married. According to the DSM-5 (2013) fetishistic disorder is the use of nonliving objects in this case the use of dildos and sex toys. It further explains that, fetish objects are not limited to articles specifically designed for the tactile genital stimulation but also include body parts in this case consider the multisensory stimulation of the clitoris whilst masturbating. Some de facto FHHs were faced with relationship frustrations in their marriages due to their spousal migration, statuses or behaviour. Mwatwara’s (2012) study on the impact of migration on women instigates that from the opinions that labour migration in Zimbabwe as a masculine undertaking instigated various social and psychological issues. He emphasised that, hegemonic masculinities, operated much against women, causing women to suffer more than they profited from their husbands migration. This has seen some women in this study suffer from major depressive disorders, sexual disorders and relationship frustrations due to long distance intimacy and transnational intimacy. While he admits that some women benefit from the movement of their spouses, Mwatwara upholds that, by and large, diasporians’ wives left behind were essentially negatively affected by the exodus of their adored ones. This reflection confirms the argument that exodus has duplicated a catastrophe of anticipations in Zimbabwe. In relation to this study, this resulted in some de facto FHHs suffering stresses, anxiety and bitterness over their lives. 5.3 Conclusion Drawn from the findings of the study, this research makes the conclusion based on the circumstances that lead to the escalation of psychosocial problems among women in de facto FHHs. These problems include depression, stigmatisation, loneliness, social exclusion and trauma. One circumstance that is key in the production of this conclusion is the general lack of formal recognition of the capacities and capabilities of women owing to patriarchal prejudice i.e (hegemonic masculinity). This is also worsened by the taboos attached to female sexuality and sex relations which inhibit women to come out to the open about issues to do with sex to their husbands. These problems generally lead to psychological breakdown and in some cases women would seek other morally unacceptable ways to cope. There is a clear connection between poverty, discrimination, social exclusion and female headed householdship and unfavorable issues of livelihoods in such households that further fuels susceptibility to poverty. This is represented by the amount of struggling FHHs has to go through in order to try and fend for their households. On average FHHs experience more social and psychological issues therefore the perception of feminisation of poverty. Females heading households are stigmatised and excluded because of their status of FHHs and this further increases their material, social and economic poverty. 5.4 Recommendations On the basis of the findings, this study recommends that: 1. There be established educational programmes for men to accept the practical reality of the capacities and capabilities of women to fend and provide for their families without necessarily labeling them as morally loose. This kind of education will help scale down on the patriarchal stigma boarding around male superiority and women inferiority. 2. Furthermore, males should allow women to be more open about their sexual preferences to avoid sexual starvation and related depressions that comes with it. This would ensure that instead of resorting to what is considered to be morally unacceptable as a copying mechanism women can still get sexual satisfaction from their husbands if they come out clear and without being stigmatised afterwards. 3. Emphasis on the need on education for men is informed by the fact that there are so many organisations that unilaterally focus on women without including men. This focus does not solve much problems as the psychosocial issues in FHHs emanate from how women relate with men and therefore, the need to include men in all issues to do with the need to solve women’s’ problems. There should be a working relationship between men forums like Padare and women’s forums. 4. To strengthen legislation that improves women’s access to productive resources and related services and inputs in order to give them more guaranties to providing for their families. In line with the sustainable livelihood approach which emphasises that, female heads of households themselves have to be key actors in identifying the important aspects of their own livelihoods. Policy makers have to provide for capabilities, materials and social resource assets and activities required for a means of living. The emphasis being that, a livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, while not undermining the natural resource base. 5. To establish a broad-based campaign to make de facto FHHs more visible and get assistance from established psychosocial institutions. As it stands, many de facto FHHs are invisible and very few come out to the open and the majority suffers silently. 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