Abiodun O.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY HANDBOOK INTRODUCTION Science, technology and society (STS) is a process whereby social, political and cultural values affect scientific research and technological innovation and these, in turn, affect society, politics and culture. A Technological Innovation System can be defined as ‘a dynamic network of agents interacting in a specific economic/industrial area under a particular institutional infrastructure and involved in the generation, diffusion, and utilization of technology’. (Carlsson, and Stankiewicz, 1991) The approach may be applied to at least three levels of analysis: to a technology in the sense of knowledge field, to a product or an artifact, or to a set of related products and artifacts aimed at satisfying a particular (societal) function’. Through the results of scientific discoveries, the perception of man about his behavior and his place of origin has been modified diversely. Experiments in science today are in one way or another affecting the society. Some sectors that have been boosted by science and technology are energy, physical sciences, information and communication. The society has greatly gained with the invention of technology. Infrastructure in the society has grown with the help of science and technology. Modes of transport like electronic railway lines were realized and these actually benefited the society by offering them a better means of transport. Without society then there would be no science and technology and that is why the invention of certain tools and equipment have helped achieve big things. The creation of computers is work of art by individuals was a milestone that would come a long way in helping the society. A computer helps us to leverage ourselves by gaining valuable information that we can use to enrich our lives. The impact of science and technology can seriously be recognized. Many people around the world take for example scholars in colleges and universities have taken the lead examining the relationship between science and technology. The rise of STS as a teaching field reflects a dawning recognition that specialization in today’s research universities does not fully prepare future citizens to respond knowledgeably and reflectively to the most important challenges of the contemporary world. However, STS research, teaching, and outreach offer citizens of modern, high-tech societies the resources with which to evaluate analytically, esthetically, and ethically the benefits and the risks, the perils and the promises, of notable advances in science and technology. REFERENCES B. Carlsson, R. Stankiewicz, On the Nature, Function, and Composition of Technological systems, Journal of Evolutionary Economics 1 -. WEEK 1: AGRICULTURAL ROBOT Agriculture is humankind’s oldest and still its most important economic activity, providing the food, feed, fiber, and fuel necessary for our survival. With the global population expected to reach 9 billion by 2050, agricultural production must double if it is to meet the increasing demands for food and bioenergy. Given limited land, water and labor resources, it is estimated that the efficiency of agricultural productivity must increase by 25% to meet that goal, while limiting the growing pressure that agriculture puts on the environment. In agriculture, the opportunities for robot enhanced productivity are immense and the robots are appearing on farms in various guises and in increasing numbers. Robots perform agricultural operations autonomously such as spraying and mechanical weed control, fruit picking, watching the farms day and night for an effective report, allowing farmers to reduce the environmental impact, increase precision and efficiency, and manage individual plants in novel ways. However, emerging applications of robots or drones in agriculture include  cloud seeding, harvesting, weed control,   planting seeds, soil analysis and environmental monitoring,. They can also be used in livestock applications (livestock robotics) such as automatic milking, washing and castrating. Robots like these have many benefits for the agricultural industry, including a higher quality of fresh produce, lower production costs, and a smaller need for manual labor. They can also be used to automate manual tasks, such as weed or bracken spraying, where the use of tractors and other manned vehicles is too dangerous for the operators. Robotics and automation can play a significant role in society meeting 2050 agricultural production needs. For six decades robots have played a fundamental role in increasing the efficiency and reducing the cost of industrial production and products. In the past twenty years, a similar trend has started to take place in agriculture, with GPS and vision-based self-guided tractors and harvesters already being available commercially. More recently, farmers have started to experiment with autonomous systems that automate or augment operations such as pruning, thinning, and harvesting, as well as mowing, spraying, and weed removal. In the fruit tree industry, for example, workers riding robotic platforms have shown to be twice as efficient as workers using ladders. Advances in sensors and control systems allow for optimal resource and integrated pest and disease management. This is just the beginning of what will be a revolution in the way that food is grown, tended, and harvested. DESIGNS 1. Seed mapping Seed mapping is the concept of passively recording the geospatial position of each seed as it goes into the ground. It is relatively simple in practice as an RTK GPS is fitted to the seeder and infrared sensors mounted below the seed chute. As the seed drops, it cuts the infrared beam and triggers a data logger that records the position and orientation of the seeder. A simple kinematic model can then calculate the actual seed position. The seed coordinates can then be used to target subsequent plant based operations. 2. Weed mapping Weed mapping is the process of recording the position, density (biomass) and preferably species of different weeds using machine vision. For automatic weed detection, several studies have been performed applying different discrimination and classification techniques. Weed mapping is a hypothetical scenario in the sense that most farmers do not conduct systematic field scouting in their cereal fields today. 3. Micro spraying Micro spraying takes the concept of a spray boom down to the centimeter level. It applies highly targeted chemicals and can treat small areas by selectively switching the jets on and off. It is part of a larger system that can recognize individual weed plants and locate their leaves for treatment. Within the close-to-crop area, great care must be taken not to damage the crop nor disturb the soil. One method of killing weeds close to the crop plants is to use a micro spray that delivers very small amounts directly on to the weed leaf. Machine vision can be used to identify the position of an individual weed plant and a set of nozzles mounted close together can squirt an herbicide on to the weed. 4. DEMETER: Demeter is a robot that can cut crops like wheat and alfalfa. It can drive by itself without any human supervision and has cameras on it that can detect the difference between the crop that has been cut and crop that hasn’t. The Demeter system strives to provide three levels of automation to harvesters, and eventually to tractors and combines. First, a “cruise control” feature, which will automatically steer, drive and control the harvesting header, will be provided to harvester operators. This feature will allow the operator to focus on other in-cab controls and harvest conditions and to better handle contingency situations. Secondly, a “drone” feature will be provided, allowing one operator to remotely control several harvesters. Thirdly, a fully autonomous machine will be developed that will allow a harvester to completely harvest a field with no human supervision. 5. Weed Controller: Farm working usually involves a harsh environment such as limited work space and soft, unstable or uneven surfaces. The development of novel weeding technologies that can reduce manual effort by 50% to 100% in organically grown sugar beets and vegetable and herbicide usage by 75-100% in high value crops. 6. Robotic irrigation A robotic irrigator in the form of a mechatronic sprinkler (to simulate a travelling rain gun) was developed to apply variable rates of water and chemigation to predefined areas. The trajectory and sector angles of the jet were controlled by stepper motors and could be adjusted according the current weather and the desired pattern by a small computer. FUTURE OF THE AGRIBOTS Today’s agriculture has transformed into a high-tech enterprise that most 20th century farmers might barely recognize. After all, it was only around 100 years ago that farming in the US transitioned from animal power to robotic power. Over the past 20 years the global positioning system (GPS), electronic sensors and other new tools have moved farming even further into a technological wonderland. Flying Micro Robot: (a newly proposed robot) Scientists from around the world are reverse-engineering the mechanics of insects as they design midget robots to scout battlefields, search for victims trapped in rubble and record images in agricultural fields. The micro robot consists of propeller by which it can fly to heights these features include the ability to zero in and land precisely on a potato chip and then flap their wings to buzz off with blazing speed. It is expected that it can be used in agriculture for the control of weed and insects. Fully autonomous or robotic field machines have begun to be employed in small-scale high profit-margin agriculture such as wine grapes, nursery plants and some fruits and vegetables. High-Throughput Plant Phenotyping (HTPP) This is an up-and-coming precision agriculture technology at the intersection of genetics, sensors and robotics. It is used to develop new varieties or “lines” of a crop to improve characteristics such as nutritive content and drought and pest tolerance. HTPP employs multiple sensors to measure important physical characteristics of plants, such as height; leaf number, size, shape, angle, color, wilting; stalk thickness; number of fruiting positions. APPLICATION The applications of instrumental robotics are spreading every day to cover further domains, as the opportunity of replacing human operators provides effective solutions with return on investment. This is especially important when the duties, that need be performed, are potentially harmful for the safety or the health of the workers, or when more conservative issues are granted by robotics. Heavy chemicals or drugs dispensers, manure or fertilizers spreaders, etc. are activities more and more concerned by the deployment of unmanned options. Robots have many fields of application in agriculture. Some examples and prototypes of robots include the Merlin Robot Milker, Rosphere, Harvest Automation, Orange Harvester, lettuce bot, and weeder. One case of a large scale use of robots in farming is the milk bot. It is widespread among British dairy farms because of its efficiency and non-requirement to move. Furthermore, robots that work on repetitive tasks (e.g. milking) fulfill their role to a consistent and particular standard. Another field of application is horticulture. One horticultural application is the development of RV100.  RV 100 is designed to transport potted plants in a greenhouse or outdoor setting and it functions in handling and organizing potted plants include spacing capabilities, collection, and consolidation. The benefits of using RV100 for this task include high placement accuracy, autonomous outdoor and indoor function, and reduced production costs. WEEK 2: NUCLEAR FUSION REACTORS Nuclear fusion power is energy generated by nuclear fusion, or more broadly, the use of that power as an energy source. Fusion has a number of advantages over fission as a source of power, including reduced radioactivity, ample fuel supplies, and increased safety. However, controlled fusion has proven to be extremely difficult to produce in a practical manner. Research into fusion reactors began in the 1940s, but as of 2017 no design has produced positive net energy. It is the process used in stars to produce energy and heavier elements. The reaction normally takes place in a plasma of deuterium and tritium heated to millions of degrees. it occur when two or more atomic nuclei come close enough for long enough that the strong nuclear force pulling them together exceeds the electrostatic force pushing them apart, fusing them into heavier nuclei. For nuclei lighter than iron-56, the reaction is exothermic, releasing energy. For nuclei heavier than iron-56, the reaction is endothermic, requiring an external source of energy. Hence, nuclei smaller than iron-56 are more likely to fuse while those heavier than iron-56 are more likely to break apart. Small nuclear fusion reactors have been built, but a large-scale, sustainable fusion reactor has yet to be attempted until now. Fusion reactors do not produce long-lived radioactive waste. Fusion energy has the potential to become a radical alternative power source with zero carbon emissions during operation and minimal waste, but the technical difficulties in demonstrating fusion in the lab have so far proved overwhelming. While existing nuclear reactors generate energy by splitting atoms into lighter particles, fusion reactors combine light atomic nuclei into heavier particles  A consortium of seven member bodies (the US, EU, Russia, China, Japan, South Korea, and India) has chosen a location in France to build the world’s first. And while even its champions concede it could be decades before it’s dispensing energy, nuclear fusion is cleaner and yields three to four times more power than fission. The project is called ITER, for International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor and it is the second-largest cooperative international scientific endeavor (ranking behind only the Space Station).  US researchers have achieved a world first in an ambitious experiment that aims to recreate the conditions at the heart of the sun and pave the way for nuclear fusion reactors. The scientists generated more energy from fusion reactions than they put into the nuclear fuel, in a small but crucial step along the road to harnessing fusion power. The ultimate goal to produce more energy than the whole experiment consumes remains a long way off, but the feat has nonetheless raised hopes that after decades of setbacks, firm progress is finally being made. SUSTAINABILITY Fusion power does not produce any greenhouse gases (GHGs) or other atmospheric pollutants during operation. It offers a route to large-scale base load energy production with no negative impact on the climate. The fuel consumption in a fusion power station is extremely low. To generate 7 billion kilowatt hours of electricity, a 1000-megawatt fusion power station would consume about 100 kg of deuterium and three tonnes of lithium per year. This compares to the 1.5 million tonnes of coal in an equivalent fossil-fuel plant. Fusion offers an almost limitless fuel supply with the fuel found in all parts of the world, and no negative climate change issues. The implications of true nuclear fusion remain extraordinary; the ultimate goal is a new form of clean, cheap, sustainable nuclear power, which would not require the use of extremely rare elements. In theory it would represent an escape from the reliance on fossil fuels and older, more dangerous and dirty nuclear fission technology. SAFETY AND THE ENVIRONMENT The inherent safety characteristics of a fusion reactor are due to the very low fuel inventory in the reactor during operation and to the rapid cooling that extinguishes the fusion reactions should a malfunction occur. Of the fuels, lithium and deuterium are not radioactive. However tritium is radioactive with a short half-life of 12.6 years. As tritium is produced and used inside the reactor, no transport of radioactive fuel is needed. At the end of a fusion power station's working life the radiotoxicity in the reactor chamber and other structural and waste materials will decay rapidly. In less than 100 years the residual activity of these materials would be less than the radiotoxicity found in the waste from a conventional coal-fired power station. Fusion power will not burden society with a long-term toxic waste issue. The worst possible accident would not be able to breach the confinement barriers. Even when a hypothesis is done that confinement barriers be breached, any accidental radioactive release from a fusion power station in this case cannot reach the level that would require the evacuation of the local community. For decommissioning, the majority of the radioactive materials should be released from regulatory control in reasonable timescales. It is estimated that 60 % of the material will be below international clearance levels after 30 years, with 80 % available after 100 years. The GSSR assessments showed that ITER can be constructed and operated safely without significant environmental impacts. APPLICATION Fusion power would provide more energy for a given weight of fuel than any fuel-consuming energy source currently in use and the fuel itself (primarily deuterium) exists abundantly in the Earth's ocean: about 1 in 6500 hydrogen atoms in seawater is deuterium. Despite being technically non-renewable, fusion power has many of the benefits of renewable energy sources (such as being a long-term energy supply and emitting no greenhouse gases) as well as some of the benefits of the resource-limited energy sources as hydrocarbons and nuclear fission (without reprocessing). Like these currently dominant energy sources, fusion could provide very high power-generation density and uninterrupted power delivery (because it is not dependent on the weather, unlike wind and solar power). WEEK 3: Wireless Electricity Transmission Wireless energy or wireless power transfer is a method of transferring the electric energy from a power source to an electrical load without synthetic conductor. Wireless transmission is useful in cases in which connecting lines are inconvenient, dangerous or impossible. The problem of wireless transmission of energy different from the wireless telecommunication, such as a radio. MPT as a mechanism for WPT is the central focus of this paper. MPT is defined as the transfer of power through space by means of microwaves. In particular, a MPT system converts direct current (DC) power to microwaves, transmits that microwave radiation to a target, and the target converts the microwave radiation back to DC power. In order for the energy to be transferred safely coupled resonators are used. Coupled resonators are two objects of the same resonant frequency that exchange energy efficiently without much leakage. Minimizing energy leakage is very important because the goal is to have as much energy as possible be transferred from one object to another. Wireless power techniques mainly fall into two categories, non-radiative and radiative. In near field or non-radiative techniques, power is transferred by magnetic fields using inductive coupling between coils of wire, or by electric fields using capacitive couplingbetween metal electrodes. Inductive coupling is the most widely used wireless technology; its applications include charging handheld devices like phones and electric toothbrushes, RFID tags, and chargers for implantable medical devices like artificial cardiac pacemakers, or electric vehicles. In far-field or radiative techniques, also called power beaming, power is transferred by beams of electromagnetic radiation, like microwaves or laser beams. These techniques can transport energy longer distances but must be aimed at the receiver. Proposed applications for this type are solar power satellites, and wireless powered drone aircraft.[1][2][3] A large part of the energy required by the production unit arrive and the receiver or receivers at the system economical. The most common form of wireless power transmission is carried out via direct induction followed by resonant magnetic induction. Other methods are taking into account electromagnetic radiation in the form of microwaves or laser [2] and an electric wire with natural media. [3]. Some of the most common methods used for the wireless transmission of electricity are 1. Electromagnetic induction 2. Electrostatic induction 3. Electromagnetic radiation 4. Microwave method 5. Laser method 6. Electrical conduction ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION The electrodynamic induction near-field wireless communication technology is used at distances of up to about one-sixth the wavelength. Near field energy it is non-radiative but some radiative losses do occur. Furthermore, there is typically resistive losses. With electrodynamic induction electric current through a primary coil which generates a magnetic field that acts on a secondary coil generating a current therein. Coupling, has to be in order to achieve high efficiency. This action of an electrical transformer is the simplestform of wireless energy transfer. The primary and secondary circuit of a transformer are not directly connected. ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION An electrostatic induction or capacitive coupling, the passage of electric energy by a dielectric. In practice, an electric field gradient or differential capacitance between two or more insulated blocks, plates, electrodes, or nodes, which are elevated above a conductive ground plane. The electric field is generated by feeding the sheets with a high potential, high-frequency AC power supply. The capacitance between two terminals and a higher powered device form a voltage divider. ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION Far-field techniques achieve longer ranges, often several kilometers ranges, wherein the distance is substantially greater than the diameter of the device (s). The main reason for greater distances with radio waves and optical devices is the fact that the electromagnetic radiation can be in the far field to be (with high directivity antennas or well-collimated laser beam) adapted the shape of the reception area, so it provides almost radiated power at long range. The maximum directivity for antennas is physically limited by diffraction. MICROWAVE METHODS Taken directional transmission using radio waves are so long distance power transmission at shorter wavelengths of the electromagnetic radiation, typically in the microwave range. A rectenna is used to convert the microwave energy into electricity. Rectenna efficiencies have been realized in excess of 95%. Power beaming using microwaves has been for the transfer of energy from solar power satellites orbiting the earth and leave the beaming of power to spacecraft orbit has been considered. LASER METHODS When electromagnetic radiation in detail the visible spectrum (10s microns (um) to 10s nm) capable of transmitting power through the conversion of current into a laser beam, which is then at a solar cell receiver. This mechanism is usually called "power beaming "because the power at a receiver, convert it into usable electrical energy radiated can be known. The laser "powerbeaming" technology has been studied primarily in military weapons and space and applications will be developed for commercial and consumer electronics Low-Power applications. Wireless energy transfer system using laser for consumer space has to satisfy Laser safety requirements. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION Disturbed charge of ground and air method. Thewireless transmission of alternating current through the earth with an equivalent electrical displacement obtained by the air above long areas that are higher than the resonant electrical induction methods and low compared with the electromagnetic radiation methods. Electrical energy can be transmitted through inhomogeneous earth with low loss because the net resistance between earth antipodes is less than 1 ohm. [3], the electrical adjustment takes place predominantly by electrical conduction through the oceans, and metallic ore bodies and similar subsurface structures. Transmission: Microwave Generator Several devices, known as Microwave Vacuum Tubes, are used to transmit microwaves through space; these devices include magnetron, klystron, and the Travelling Wave Tube among others, with the magnetron being the device used the most often [Reddy13]. The magnetron device generates microwaves by passing electrons through a magnetic field [WikiMagnetron]. These microwaves are then transmitted via antenna into space. The exact frequency at which microwave radiation is transmitted through space to achieve maximum efficiency has been an area of great deal of research. Frequencies often used within the microwave range are 2.45 GHz, 5.8 GHz, 8.5 GHz, 10 GHz and 35 GHz [Reddy13]. Applications of WPT Several applications of wireless power transfer are apparent and obvious. Firstly, WPT could eliminate traditional charging systems in place today. Instead of plugging in a mobile phone or laptop via power cord to charge the battery, wireless power can be harnessed and implemented in a home such that a laptop and phone charge continuously and wirelessly without the need for plugging anything in. Higher level applications include charging of electric vehicles (EVs). As EVs become more and more prevalent on the roads, the feasibility of driving such a vehicle can be maximized via stationary, and even mobile, WPT systems. Future and theoretical applications include a potential solution to renewable energy for the planet, by means of satellites collecting sunlight and sending power back to earth through MPT. Applications of WPT are described in this section. Theoretical applications: Aerial Vehicles and Solar Power Satellites While portable device and vehicle charging are applications that could be implemented in the near future, some other theoretical applications have been posited for further research and development. One such application is the Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform (SHARP) [Choudhary11]. The SHARP system consists of an unmanned airplane that flies at an altitude of approximately 13 miles above the earth, constantly circling the earth in a 2 kilometer diameter. The SHARP airplane would then be used as a communications relay. Here, the SHARP airplane has a large rectenna behind the wings, allowing for power to be transmitted to it from the earth, and thus is able to stay in the air for long periods of time, potentially months [Choudhary11]. A picture of the aircraft is shown in Figure 5. Another exciting and future application of MPT is that of the Solar Power Satellites (SPS) system. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from burning fossil fuels have become a point of great concern with respect to global warming. Additionally, fossil fuels are a nonrenewable energy source, and by some estimates fossil fuels could be completely consumed in 100 to 150 years [Sasaki13]. WEEK 4: magnetic levitation Maglev trains move more smoothly and more quietly than wheeled mass transit systems. The power needed for levitation is typically not a large percentage of its overall energy consumption;[1] most goes to overcome drag, as with other high-speed transport. Maglev trains hold the speed record for trains. In itself, maglev technology includes no moving parts. Compared to conventional trains, differences in construction affect the economics of maglev trains, making them much more efficient. For high-speed trains with wheels, wear and tear from friction from wheels on rails accelerates equipment wear and prevents high speeds.[2] Conversely, maglev systems have been much more expensive to construct, offsetting lower maintenance costs. In Japan, a recent successful test run means that plans are underway to connect the whole country by 2045 with trains capable of reaching over 480 kph (300 mph). They accomplish this by removing the wheels—and thereby, contact and friction—from the equation. Maglev trains levitate above the track, suspended by an electromagnetic field. And while the Japanese model is impressive, one company in the small Colorado town of Longmont is upping the ante by eliminating another barrier to shattering speeds: namely, wind resistance. Despite decades of research and development, maglev transport systems are in operation in just three countries (Japan, South Korea and China). In April 2004, Shanghai's Transrapid system began commercial operations. In March 2005, Japan began operation of its relatively low-speed HSST "Linimo" line in time for the 2005 World Expo. In its first three months, the Linimo line carried over 10 million passengers. South Korea became the world's fourth country to succeed in implementing maglev technology with the Incheon Airport Maglev beginning regular operation on February 3, 2016.[3] TECHNOLOGY In the public imagination, "maglev" often evokes the concept of an elevated monorail track with a linear motor. Maglev systems may be monorail or dual rail[34] and not all monorail trains are maglevs. Some railway transport systems incorporate linear motors but use electromagnetism only for propulsion, without levitating the vehicle.  The two notable types of maglev technology are: Electromagnetic suspension (EMS), electronically controlled electromagnets in the train attract it to a magnetically conductive (usually steel) track. The system is typically arranged on a series of C-shaped arms, with the upper portion of the arm attached to the vehicle, and the lower inside edge containing the magnets. The rail is situated inside the C, between the upper and lower edges. Magnetic attraction varies inversely with the cube of distance, so minor changes in distance between the magnets and the rail produce greatly varying forces. Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) uses superconducting electromagnets or strong permanent magnets that create a magnetic field, which induces currents in nearby metallic conductors when there is relative movement, which pushes and pulls the train towards the designed levitation position on the guide way. The magnetic field is produced either by superconducting magnets (as in JR–Maglev) or by an array of permanent magnets (as in Inductrack). The repulsive and attractive force in the track is created by an induced magnetic field in wires or other conducting strips in the track. A major advantage of EDS maglev systems is that they are dynamically stable – changes in distance between the track and the magnets creates strong forces to return the system to its original position. Another technology, which was designed, proven mathematically, peer-reviewed, and patented, but is, as of May 2015, unbuilt, is magnetodynamic suspension (MDS). It uses the attractive magnetic force of a permanent magnet array near a steel track to lift the train and hold it in place. Other technologies such as repulsive permanent magnets and superconducting magnets have seen some research. The Operation Control System The operation control system controls the operation and guarantees the safety of the Maglev system. It safeguards vehicle movements, the position of the switches, and all other safety and operational functions. Vehicles location on the track is accomplished using an on-board system which detects digitally encoded location flags on the guideway. A radio transmission system is used for communication between the central control center and the vehicles. Public Benefits of Maglev The economic evaluation of maglev should include not only its financial viability but also its other public benefits and costs in areas such as congestion, petroleum consumption, emission, and safety. The estimated values of such public benefits and costs can, at least conceptually, be added to the corridor revenues and used to compute a societal benefit/cost (BC) ratio. Maglev is better than high-speed trains for many reasons. First, rather than the point-to-point service between city centers characteristic of high speed rail, Maglev will have many more stations, distributed so that people have easy and fast access to the Maglev Network. Second, individual Maglev vehicles will hold 100 people at most, compared to the 500 to 1000 people on a high-speed train. This enables more frequent and convenient service. Third, Maglev vehicles travel at 300 mph, compared to 180 mph for high-speed trains. WEEK 5: TOOTH REGENERATION Tooth regeneration is a stem cell based regenerative medicine procedure in the field of tissue engineering and stem cell biology to replace damaged or lost teeth by regrowing them from autologous stem cells.[1] Artificial tooth replacement methods such as implant treatment have been developed in recent years, but tooth regeneration, in which a new tooth is produced from cells, would be the ideal treatment. Tooth regeneration is a regenerative medicine procedure based on stem cell in the field of engineering of tissue and biology  of stem cell to rearrange the altered or damaged and lost teeth by stimulating the regrowth process  from autologous stem cells. Somatic stem cells are collected as a source of the new bioengineeredteeth and rearranged to pluripotent stem cells that can be placed directly in the dental lamina or placed in a re-absorbable biopolymer in the form of the new tooth. Investigations have been done to renew tooth enamel over couple of decades. The process has been found quite difficult unlike bone, matured enamel can’t rejuvenate. Toothpaste and mouthwash containing casein phosphopeptide-amorphous calcium phosphate and fluoride promotes re-mineralization of initially enamelled lesions; though, they are more of a tire patch than a real and better solution. As a source of the new bioengineered teeth somatic stem cells are collected and reprogrammed to induced pluripotent stem cells which can be placed in the dental lamina directly or placed in a reabsorbable biopolymer[2] in the shape of the new tooth. Stem cell research is making it possible to regrow your missing teeth, his is a much-needed medical advancement, especially considering that by age 74—26% of adults have lost all of their permanent teeth. Stem cells are no ordinary cells. They have the extraordinary ability to multiply and transform into many different types of cells in the body. They repair tissues by dividing continually either as a new stem cell or as a cell with a more specialized job, such as a red blood cell, a skin cell, or a muscle cell. A stem cell implant, on the other hand, promises to be a non-invasive procedure that requires the use of a local anesthetic only. Within 2 months, the stem cells grow into a new tooth, an exact match of your old one! The stem cells also produce the bone that connects the tooth to the jaw, eliminating the need for bone grafting, a procedure that can delay dental implant surgery 6 to 9 months. With regenerated teeth, there is also no risk of the implanted tooth falling out. Stem cell tooth implants are also a healthier and more comfortable alternative to dentures. Unlike dentures, the newly developed teeth move with your mouth, conserving the health of your gums. Steps in Regenerating a Tooth via a Cap-Stage Implant Our plan required a number of progressive steps: 1) harvest adult stem cells (bone marrow stromal stem cells or tooth-derived postnatal stem cells) or employ NIH-approved human embryonic stem cells; 2) expand the cells in culture, with cell banking for future organ regeneration needs; 3) seed the cells into an intelligent peptide amphiphile-based scaffold that provides an optimized biochemical and biomechanical environment; 4) instruct the cells with spatially targeted, soluble molecular signals and/or induce with porcine sources of odontogenic tissue; 5) confirm that the gene expression profile of the cells demonstrates readiness for the next stage in the odontogenesis pathway; and 6) repeat these steps until the cells have expressed genes associated with the cap stage of odontogenesis. The Future of Stem Cell Tooth Regeneration This technology, referred to as cell-homing-based tooth regeneration, alleviates the need to prepare stem cells in an external environment, such as a Petri dish. Columbia University is in the process of patenting this technology. Stem cell implants are expected to cost around $-. The average cost of artificial implants currently ranges from $- per tooth—and require similar post-op care as tooth extractions do. WEEK 6: Fuel cell vehicle A fuel cell vehicle (FCV) or fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) is a type of electric vehicle which uses a fuel cell, instead of a battery, or in combination with a battery or supercapacitor, to power its on-board electric motor. Mostfuel cell vehicles are classified as zero-emissions vehicles that emit only water and heat. As compared with internal combustion vehicles, hydrogen vehicles centralize pollutants at the site of the hydrogen production, where hydrogen is typically derived from reformed natural gas. Fuel-cell vehicles have long promised several major advantages over those powered by electricity or hydrocarbons. In practice, fuel cells and batteries are combined, with the fuel cell generating electricity and the batteries storing it until demanded by the motors that drive the vehicle. Fuel-cell vehicles are therefore hybrids and will likely also deploy regenerative braking, which recovers energy from waste heat, a key capability for maximizing efficiency and range. Hydrogen is clean-burning, producing only water vapor as waste, so fuel-cell vehicles using hydrogen will be zero-emission, an important factor given the need to reduce air pollution. There are a number of ways to produce hydrogen without generating carbon emissions. Most obviously, renewable sources of electricity from wind and solar sources can be used to electrolyze water—although the overall energy efficiency of this process is likely to be quite low. Hydrogen can also be split from water in high-temperature nuclear reactors or generated fromfossil fuels such as coal or natural gas, with the resulting carbon dioxide captured and sequestered rather than released into the atmosphere. The first commercially produced hydrogen fuel cell automobiles began to be sold by Toyota and leased on a limited basis by Hyundai in 2015, with additional manufacturers planning to enter the market. A Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) is a vehicle powered by an electric motor. In many respects, a FCEV is identical to a battery electric vehicle (BEV) with the only di􀀩erence being the method in which electricity is delivered to the motor. In a BEV, electricity is stored in lithium-ion batteries whereas a FCEV produces electricity by a chemical process inside the fuel cell.As of June 2016, the Toyota Mirai is available for retail sale in Japan, California, the UK, enmark, Germany, Belgium, and Norway.[2] As of early 2016, there was limited hydrogen infrastructure, with 23 hydrogen fueling stations for automobiles publicly available in the U.S., but more hydrogen stations are planned, particularly in California. Different types of fuel cells include polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells, direct methanol fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, solid oxide fuel cells, reformed methanol fuel cell and Regenerative Fuel Cells. Fuel cells powered by an ethanol reformer In June 2016, Nissan announced plans to develop fuel cell vehicles powered by ethanol rather than hydrogen. Nissan claims this technical approach would be cheaper, and that it would be easier to deploy the fueling infrastructure than a hydrogen infrastructure.[47] The vehicle would include a tank holding a blend of water and ethanol, which is fed into an onboard reformer that splits it into hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The hydrogen is then fed into a solid oxide fuel cell. According to Nissan, the liquid fuel could be an ethanol-water blend at a 55:45 ratio. Fuel cell buses have a 30-141% higher fuel economy than diesel buses and natural gas buses. Hydrogen infrastructure Eberle and Rittmar von Helmolt stated in 2010 that challenges remain before fuel cell cars can become competitive with other technologies and cite the lack of an extensive hydrogen infrastructure in the U.S.:[93] As of March 2016, there were 23 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US, 20 of which were located in California. Environmental impact The environmental impact of fuel cell vehicles depends on the primary energy with which the hydrogen was produced. Fuel cell vehicles are only environmentally benign when the hydrogen was produced with renewable energy.[113] If this is the case fuel cell cars are cleaner and more efficient than fossil fuel cars. However, they are not as efficient as battery electric vehicles which consume much less energy. In a 2005 Well-to-Wheels analysis, the DOE estimated that fuel cell electric vehicles using hydrogen produced from natural gas would result in emissions of approximately 55% of the CO2 per mile of internal combustion engine vehicles and have approximately 25% less emissions than hybrid vehicles. Applications There are fuel cell vehicles for all modes of transport. The most prevalent fuel cell vehicles are cars, buses, forklifts and material handling vehicles. WEEK 7: holographic Techniques The holographic technique is based on the capture and display of 3D real world objects or scenes [1]. On the other hand current 3D TV stereoscopic and autostereoscopic imaging technique rely on 2D images only [1–3]. This simplification has enabled commercialization of 3D display techniques in the form of 3D cinema and television, however it does not allow the viewer to satisfy all cues of human visual 3D perception as is true in the case of holography [4,5]. Therefore 3D holographic video presents a very interesting development direction for 3D TV [4–7]. Types of Holographic Displays Laser Plasma Laser plasma displays, developed in 2005 by the University of Texas, utilize a series of powerful lasers that focus light in desired positions in order to create plasma excitations with the oxygen and nitrogen molecules in the air. This type of holographic display is capable of producing images in thin air, without the need for any sort of screen or external refraction media. The laser plasma display is able to depict very bright and visible objects, but it lacks in terms of resolution and picture quality. Micromagnetic Piston Display The piston display, invented by Belgian company IMEC in 2011, utilizes a MEMS (microelectro- mechanical system) based structure. In this type of display, thousands of microscopic pistons are able to be manipulated up and down to act as pixels, which in turn reflect light with a desired wavelength to represent an image. This developing technology is currently in the prototype phase, as IMEC is still developing the mechanism that will mobilize their "pixels" more effectively. Holographic Television Display The holographic television display was created by MIT researcher Michael Bove in 2013. Dr. Bove used a Microsoft Kinect camera as a relatively effective way to capture subjects in a threedimensional space. The image is then processed by a PC graphics card and replicated with a series of laser diodes. The produced image is fully 3-dimensional and can be viewed from all 360 degrees to gain spatial perspective. Touchable Holograms Touchable holograms were originally a Japanese invention that became further developed by American microprocessor company Intel. Touchable hologram technology is the closest modern representation of the holographic displays that one might see in sci-fi movies such as Star Wars and particularly in the Star Trek television franchise. This display is unique in that it can detect a user's touch by sensing movements in the air. Technologies Used Laser Most modern day holograms utilize a laser as its light source. In this type of hologram, a laser is shone onto a scene that is then reflected onto a recording apparatus. In addition, part of the laser must shine directly onto a specific area of the display to act as a reference beam. The purpose of the reference beam is to provide the recording device with information such as background light, picture angle, and beam profile. Electroholography[7] Electroholographic displays are digital displays that transmit stored image data using an electromagnetic resonator. These signals are then read by an acoustic-optic modulator and converted into a legible image and displayed on an RGB laser monitor. Full Parallax/HPO/VPO Full parallax holography is the process of delivering optical nformation in both the x and y directions. The resulting image will therefore provide an observer the same perspective of a scene no matter which direction he is standing. This method of display partially compromises the image in certain viewing angles, but it requires much less computational power and data transfer. MEMS MEMS technology allows holographic displays to incorporate very small moving parts into its design. The prime example of a MEMS-enabled display is the piston display, listed in the above section. Micropistons used in the display can behave like pixels on a computer monitor, allowing for sharp image quality. WEEK 8: Google Earth Google Earth is a computer program that renders a simulacrum of the Earth based on satellite imagery. It maps the Earth by the superimposition of images obtained from satellite imagery, aerial photography and geographic information system (GIS) onto a 3D globe. Google Earth displays satellite images of varying resolution of the Earth's surface, allowing users to see things like cities and houses looking perpendicularly down or at an oblique angle (see also bird's eye view). Imagery resolution ranges from 15 meters of resolution to 15 centimeters. Features Wikipedia and Panoramio integration In December 2006, Google Earth added a new integration with Wikipedia and Panoramio. For the Wikipedia layer, entries are scraped for coordinates via the Coord templates. There is also a community-layer from the project Wikipedia-World. More coordinates are used, different types are in the display and different languages are supported than the built-in Wikipedia layer.[10][11] The Panoramio layer features pictures uploaded by Panoramio users, placed in Google Earth based off user-provided location data. Google announced on May 30, 2007 that it is acquiring Panoramio. Flight simulator In Google Earth v4.2 a flight simulator was included as a hidden feature. Starting with v4.3 it is no longer hidden. The flight simulator could be accessed by holding down the keys Ctrl, Alt, and A. The flight simulator can be commanded with the keyboard, mouse or plugged-in joystick. Broadband connection and a high speed computer provides a very realistic experience. Sky mode It was produced by Google through a partnership with the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) in Baltimore, the science operations center for the Hubble Space Telescope. wavelength data, positions of major satellites and their orbits as well as educational resources will be provided to the Google Earth community and also through Christian and Conti's website for Sky. 3D Imagery Google Earth shows 3D building models in some cities, including photorealistic 3D imagery. The first 3D buildings in Google Earth were created using 3D modeling applications such as SketchUp and, beginning in 2009, Building Maker,[37] and were uploaded to Google Earth via the 3D Warehouse. Traffic Google Earth includes a feature that allows users to monitor traffic speeds in real-time. In 2007, Google began offering traffic data in real-time, based on information crowdsourced from the GPS-identified locations of cellular phone users. Google Earth Outreach Google Earth Outreach is a charity program, through which Google promotes and donates to various non-profit organizations. Beginning in 2007, donations are often accompanied by layers featured in Google Earth, allowing users to view a non-profit's projects and goals by navigating to certain related locations.